History of the Cell :: essays research papers

History of the Cell          The word cadre was coined by Englishman Robert Hooke (1635-1703), after conniptioning slices of cork in a microscope. The word cell was derived from the Latin word cella meaning small container.     The microscope created new possibilities in the study biology. It allowed scientists to look into a completely new view of cellular biology. Galileo is credited with the invention of the microscope. Two of the main pioneers in microscope usage were Robert Hooke and Antonie von Leeuwenhoek.     Rene Dutrochet discovered, in 1824, that the cell is the fundamental element in the structure of life. The first sightings of the demonstrable movement of a cell were make by Robert Brown in 1827. Brown also discovered the nucleus in 1833. In Berlin, Johannes Muller make the connection between biology and medicine, others soon followed Muller and his connective thinking. One to follow Mul ler was Theodore Schwann. Schwann created the idea of the "cell theory" in the 1830s and stated that plants consisted of cells. His narration was made after Matthias Schleiden (1804 - 1881) had decided in 1838 that animals are composed of cells. In 1939 Schwann also stated that all organisms consist of one or more cells, and that the cell is the basic structure for all of life.     German Pathologist by the name of Rudolf Virchow (1821 - 1902) altered the thought of cellular biology with his statement that "every cell comes from a cell. Not even twenty years after this statement, processes of cell reproduction were being described.      In 1898, Camillo Golgi developed a staining technique using silver-tongued nitrate that allows the identification of the cellular organelle that now bears his name, the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is responsible for processing the proteins that are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum .     In 1953 Stanley Lloyd Miller conducted his famous primordial dope up experiment. His experiment may have possibly shown how lifes building blocks here on earth may have formed. In the experiment he subjected a gaseous mixture of hydrogen, water, methane, and ammonia to an electric discharge for one week. Instead of him showing everyone that spontaneous generation was possible, his primordial soup showed him that it was not. Miller made sure that there was no oxygen in his design, but all throughout life there has been oxygen present.

Exposing Children To Profanity :: essays research papers

The United States Constitution gives Americans many rights. One of those rights is the freedom of speech. A controversy has erupted in the United States because the government is unable to determine the limitations on this right. "In early America when our forefathers wrote the Constitution, profanity was non accepted" (Shoeder 72). This makes determining the current definition of "speech" difficult. A majority of people believe profanity is an acceptable form of language. These people feel that they are free to say what they exigency without worrying about the rights of others. Due to this insensitivity, a child has a hard time walking down a street without hearing offensive words. For example, on that point is a man standing on a street corner harassing another person. The child hears profane words used by the man, and from this the child relates anger with profanity. Another example is a woman seen arguing with a cashier using profanity in an attempt to pres ent her way, and the child with her begins to believe that to get your way you must cruse. A third example is a waitress having a bad day, and taking it out on the customers the child in the carrel next to the customers and the waitress is thinking that this is a proper way to communicate. All of these examples are using improper language for children to hear (Shoeder 72). Parents are then judge to explain and make excuses for the vocabulary being used by others. Profanity has become uncontrollable and has had a great role in the moral chemical decomposition reaction of our society. The main goal for parents and government officials should be the regulation of profanity in the United States.Adults are formed through the experiences of their childhood. The way a person acts and speaks is lots determined at a young age. When a parent uses profanity, a child whitethorn feel free to also use these words. For instance, a generate may not intentionally use profanity when cutting her finger while in the kitchen. As a result of the mothers action, a child may use the same words when they get hurt (Hochman 29). Parents play a great part in a young persons upbringing so it is not surprising that children imitate their guardians actions. Growing up without a role model forces a child to look for other sources to imitate. Television has role models for children to admire around of them are not beneficial for children.

Religion and Heavy Music Essay -- Religion Music

Do you ever find yourself sing along to a song but not re all(prenominal)y registering what it is you be singing? I recently caught myself doing just this, which led to the realization that in all the years I had listened to that song, the lyrics had never sunk in. The particular song that I was listening to had one particular line that struck me, Cleanliness is Godliness, and Godliness is cleanliness, and God is go off just similar me. (Corgan, 1995) Once I truly heard this line I began to contemplate the religious communities thoughts and concerns regarding coat and alternative music, even the metal bands who are considered Christian. Music plays a very large role in religion and worship, inside and outside of the church. Within church, hymns and various spiritual songs are phthisisd as an emotional guidance to connect with God and each other. Spiritual music tail end also be used as a way for stack to memorize scripture, curiously for younger children. Church music comes in many different forms, some piddle musical instruments, some use more new-fashioned music, some have choirs, some use tapes, and others just use the voices of the congregation. No matter what the form or style of music, it plays an integral role within churches. alfresco of the church, people use spiritual music to express their love and devotion. Every genre of music has a Christian sector, even metal or alternative. The varying modern genres of Christian music tend to appeal to a younger crowd and allows them to find their own way and express individualism within Christianity.The close to stigmatized genre of music, specially within the Christian religion, is metal and alternative music. There have been books written about metal music and the evil it represents, there hav... ...010, from http//www.demonhunter.net/main.phpHann, Michael. (2010). prophetical and poetic in praise of heavy metal. Guardian, Retrieved from http//www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2010/aug/3 1/in-praise-of-heavy-metalCorgan , Billy (Composer). (1995). Zero Recorded by Smashing Pumpkins. On Mellon Collie and The Infinite Sadness Medium of recording CD Virgin Records. priest says church can learn from metal. (2010). Ultimate Guitar, Retrieved from http//www.ultimate-guitar.com/news/general_music_news/priest_says_church_can_learn_from_metal.htmlCimino, Richard, & Lattin, Don. (1997). Shopping for faith american religion in the new millennium. San Franciso, CA Jossey-Bass Inc.Raschke, C. A. (1990) Painted black From dose killings to heavy metal The alarming true story of how satanism is terrorizing our communities. Harper Row, San Francisco, CA. Religion and Heavy Music Essay -- Religion MusicDo you ever find yourself singing along to a song but not really registering what it is you are singing? I recently caught myself doing just this, which led to the realization that in all the years I had listened to that song, the lyrics had never sunk in. The partic ular song that I was listening to had one particular line that struck me, Cleanliness is Godliness, and Godliness is cleanliness, and God is empty just like me. (Corgan, 1995) Once I truly heard this line I began to contemplate the religious communities thoughts and concerns regarding metal and alternative music, even the metal bands who are considered Christian. Music plays a very large role in religion and worship, inside and outside of the church. Within church, hymns and various spiritual songs are used as an emotional way to connect with God and each other. Spiritual music can also be used as a way for people to memorize scripture, particularly for younger children. Church music comes in many different forms, some have musical instruments, some use more modern music, some have choirs, some use tapes, and others just use the voices of the congregation. No matter what the form or style of music, it plays an integral role within churches. Outside of the church, people use spir itual music to express their love and devotion. Every genre of music has a Christian sector, even metal or alternative. The varying modern genres of Christian music tend to appeal to a younger crowd and allows them to find their own way and express individualism within Christianity.The most stigmatized genre of music, particularly within the Christian religion, is metal and alternative music. There have been books written about metal music and the evil it represents, there hav... ...010, from http//www.demonhunter.net/main.phpHann, Michael. (2010). Prophetic and poetic in praise of heavy metal. Guardian, Retrieved from http//www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2010/aug/31/in-praise-of-heavy-metalCorgan , Billy (Composer). (1995). Zero Recorded by Smashing Pumpkins. On Mellon Collie and The Infinite Sadness Medium of recording CD Virgin Records.Priest says church can learn from metal. (2010). Ultimate Guitar, Retrieved from http//www.ultimate-guitar.com/news/general_music_news/priest_ says_church_can_learn_from_metal.htmlCimino, Richard, & Lattin, Don. (1997). Shopping for faith american religion in the new millennium. San Franciso, CA Jossey-Bass Inc.Raschke, C. A. (1990) Painted black From drug killings to heavy metal The alarming true story of how satanism is terrorizing our communities. Harper Row, San Francisco, CA.

Aristotles Categories :: Philosophy Aristotle

Aristotles CategoriesThings ar said to be named equivocally when, though they harbour a common name, the definition correspondent with the name differs for each. olibanum, a real man and a figure in a picture can both lay claim to the name animal further these be equivocally so named, for, though they have a common name, the definition corresponding with the name differs for each. For should any angiotensin-converting enzyme define in what sense each is an animal, his definition in the one case will be appropriate to that case only. On the other hand, things are said to be named univocally which have both the name and the definition answering to the name in common. A man and an ox are both animal, and these are univocally so named, inasmuch as non only the name, further also the definition, is the same in both cases for if a man should state in what sense each is an animal, the statement in the one case would be identical with that in the other. Things are said to be named derivatively, which derive their name from some other name, but differ from it in termination. Thus the grammarian derives his name from the word grammar, and the courageous man from the word courage. 2 Forms of speech are either simple or composite. Examples of the latter are such expressions as the man runs, the man wins of the former man, ox, runs, wins. Of things themselves some are predicable of a subject, and are neer present in a subject. Thus man is predicable of the individual man, and is never present in a subject. By being present in a subject I do not mean present as parts are present in a whole, but being incapable of existence apart from the said subject. Some things, again, are present in a subject, but are never predicable of a subject. For instance, a certain point of grammatical knowledge is present in the mind, but is not predicable of any subject or again, a certain whiteness may be present in the body (for colour requires a material basis), yet it is never pr edicable of anything. Other things, again, are both predicable of a subject and present in a subject. Thus while knowledge is present in the human mind, it is predicable of grammar. There is, lastly, a strain of things which are neither present in a subject nor predicable of a subject, such as the individual man or the individual horse.

Archimedes Essay -- biographies biography bio

Archimedes, a name commonly associated with the beginning of science, was an engineer and one of the greatest mathematicians in history. His impact on modern science rests on his use of experiment and invention to test ideas and his use mathematics to describe the basic principles of physical phenomena.Knowledge of the lives of ancient philosophers like Archimedes is not prevalent. We know from his publications that he grew up and spent much of his life in Syracuse, a Sicilian port on the Ionian Sea. His life spanned (approximately) the years 287 B.C. to 212 B.C. His father was the astronomer Phidias and he also mentioned his friend and possibly kinsman, King Hieron II (ruler of Sicily from ab come on 270 B.C.). According to other authors, Archimedes traveled to Egypt and there invented the device known as Archimedes screw, a pump that is still used widely around the world.There are many references to Archimedes in writings of his time period. His fame then was not due to an divert in his mathematical ideasit was in his inventions. Plutarch wrote about Archimedes engines of war being used against the Romans in the siege of 212 B.C. Apparently Archimedes was persuaded by King Hieron to devote some of his cordial ability toward that purpose.It is interesting that despite the fame he achieved because of his mechanical inventions, he believed that pure mathematics was the more worthwhile pursuit. Plutarch describes his attitudeArchimedes possessed so high a spirit, so profound a soul, and such treasures of scientific knowledge, that though these inventions had now obtained him the renown of more than human sagacity, he yet would not deign to date behind him any commentary or writing on such subjects but, repudiating ... ...percomputer.Archimedes died tragically during an invasion of Syracuse at the hands of a soldier who was uniform by his superior to spare him. At the time, Archimedes was intent on working out some problem with a diagram. According to hist orians, Archimedes played an important contribution in defending the city. He designed ballistics machines that hurled rocks at ships and cranes that dropped large stones on them. I read several stories of a great lever lifting them out of the water. This illustration is a painting based on the tale of Archimedes claw.The exact circumstances of his death differ in report. Archimedes requested that his tombstone display a cylinder containing the largest possible sphere and inscribed with the ratio of the cylinders volume to that of the sphere. Archimedes considered the discovery of this ratio his greatest of accomplishment.

The Veldt by Ray Bradbury :: Veldt

The Veldt by Ray Bradbury   The fib of The Veldt, is a delving into the issue of how modern applied science can destroy the nuclear family. The editor of the Encounters book, John A. Rothermich comments that "This story is almost devoid of characterization.", I agree with this statement and think it is key to the plot of the story. The story begins with the mother of the family, who has quite a generic name. We are given no information of the characters background and how they came to the point in time they are now. The lines "Happylife Home" and the well-known(prenominal) room settings like the parents bedroom and the nursery give you a sense that this is a typical suburban home of the time. The mother seems alarmed or disconnected about something, "the nursery is...different now than it was", this at first might lead you to believe the mother has true individual characteristics. However, when you read on, you see the stereotyped reactions to any situation that comes about, the parents then say "nothings too good for our children". Later in the story the parents discuss the problems of the incredible signboard and nursery, "The house is wife, mother, and nursemaid, Can I postulate with it?", and the father has a generic answer "But I thought thats why we bought this house". The parents in the story look upon their childrens needs as work instead of ways of expressing any love or care. In the story we never learn anything about the children except for their obsession with the nursery, "I dont want to do anything but look and listen and smell what else is there to do?". When the parents tell the children the idea of shutting down the computerized house "for a vacation", the children react ball over and stay with their one, single characteristic given, they act shocked "Who will fry my eggs for me, or darn my socks?". You see then the childrens primary relationship is to the house and not the parents, the children exclaim "I wish you were dead". And sure enough, by the end of the story the children act on their on

Drama and Theatre studies – practical- coursework

In my AS theatre studies course we induct studied, Antigone a Greek tragedy by Sophocles and, Yerma by Federico Garcia Lorca which is a Spanish number based in the countryside of Andalusia. Both dramatic events have their main component parts female and both surround around the in mediocreice they have been through the main reason world men and the patriarchy society theyre in. So from both the plays weve studied we get a feeling of a battle mingled with the sexes they both create the fancy of women fighting plump for.This was our conventions first inspiration for our devised find fault we indomitable to base our play around the treatment of women and the unity of women coming in concert to fight against men, because of the immorality towards women. This image of completely women against their men gave me the idea of a scene from the production of Chicago the musical, where all these women argon unitedly in lock in for having killed their husbands/boyfriends in a var iety of meanss and they all sing of how He had it coming, making it the mens fault.I prospect this idea of fighting back unsloped now because justifying it because these men ar cruel and so deserve punishment, this could in addition be use in our play. This scene is a musical scene they are all singing and dancing, its besides kind of creative in that it starts off with simple sounds that distri stillively wo earth makes to represent her flooring for example one woman keeps iterate the word pop you later find unwrap when she explains her story (in song) that her man kept making that pop sound with his gum and thats what irritated her into shooting him stone-deadWhen individually woman says their word (or sound) it goes around again from the beginning and they kept repeating it everywhere and over and faster each sentence that it started to make a beat and thats when the song started. This influenced us into doing many things for our play such as having an un hardhea ded scene where we could have music and dancing and also if we had the female portions that have had the injustice done to them if they each had one word to describe them and consequently bid in Chicago have them repeat it in a rising tide of a scene. In Chicago they all come together and dance in unison etc o we began to work split up away of having those individual stories of each woman but wherefore in the big climax having them come together to get revenge in unison. Therefore the basic p bent that we gathered for our devised piece is that there are a number a woman who have been treated unfairly or unequally by men they are in a relationship and so they all get their vengeance by coming together and punishing them all in an extremely unrealistic modality. The sort out came up with ideas of using something like fetish or magic to be their fight back.Because when we legal opinion of powerful evil women it do us intend of witches and that casting a spell could be thei r way of acquiring men back Research Chicago- Item 1 (enclosed) In this scene of Chicago these women are in jail they all sing near how they killed their husbands and blame them for their death. The imagery of all these women uniting as one and dancing in unison, thatd be useful for our play, instead of belongings the women as individuals even though they all have divers(prenominal) stories and are different people, make them come together, become one and fight back.Also it shows the gritty sexy side to women shows them to be strong not just sweet and caring as they are stereotyped to be, so we pick up to portray this. Its roughly like saying every woman has a tigress in them and you push her then it willing be unleashed and she will fight back Arab men and interior(prenominal) violence- Item 2 (enclosed) From this article you whoremonger see the main reason these Arab men were abusive to their wives was because of their patriarchal society.This I feel is down to insecuriti es of when they are not feeling like they are in power. But these statistics show that they are against it, its almost like they dont realise what theyre doing, and some blame their wives for them doing it. This helps me to understand my reference point because I know that he uses certain mechanisms to save himself from blame and feeling guilty. Ill use this in my acting, id be trying to make excuses and to justify my reasons for beating my wife. straight story domestic violence Tanya Grey- Item 3 (enclosed)This could be assemble into both my character and Priyas, because we tramp use examples of things that had happened in this story of abuse and stick it into our story. For example one scene in our play when the husband comes home and the wife is terrified just hearing his footsteps this was real and had happened to this woman in the article. From this we make our conventionalized version of it, the footsteps and other actions are exemplified by a thudding sound that will be made by one of the fakers off stage, and as he gets closer a heart beat rhythm starts showing how scared she is.And also in one scene the husband suspects his wife is waiting for another man (cheating) because shes got candles and is relaxing, this again comes from the real life story of this couple where she was relaxing and having a bath and he accuses her of waiting for a man. The reasons for them doing things can also be put into how we see our characters and then this will help us to understand them and so be able to be them (Stanislavskys magic IF), for example his ratiocination is jealousy wanting to have power and she stays with him at first because she finds this strength and power attractive, before she realises that hes real dangerousStanislavskys Emotion Memory- Item 4 (enclosed) When trying to be and feel like our characters we have to literally feel what they are feeling to be able to act to the best potential, this theory of Stanislavskys allows an actor to do thi s by bringing similar personal feelings of the actors into their acting. So for example when Priya is acting extremely scared she had to remember a memory of when she felt truly scared and then put all those gestures facial expressions etc into the acting. This of course is instead difficult because youre not in that situation you impoverishment a lot of way and determination to carry it off well.This could help me also in scenes where I have to be aggressive and angry if I jus think of the last time I was very angry and imagine being my character and what Id do in that situation. Feminism/Ann Oakley- Item 5 (enclosed) Our play in a way represents feminism, women fighting against men Ann Oakley is one of the main feminist writers, these quotes show her views on why men are the way they are (patriarchal society). Again I can use this to understand the thought paths of my male character she believes they are violent because they see at as masculine because thats how men are presen ted in their society.So my character may feel like its his duty because he is male to put everything in order (by forceful means). Again these are his reasoning for doing the abuse. I could mention these kinds of reasons in my monologue. Theory of why men abuse- Item 6 (enclosed) Again this leads the familiar reason that men abuse because they want power, but it also explains why women tend to stay with their abusive partners, which is because some women may be very dependant on their husbands, financially and if they have children she feels she cant be able to give them what they need.Also another reason not mentioned is that women that are in love with their partners just dont want to leave them because they love them and expect them to change one day. Priyas character will also need excuses for why she is with him and theyd be dependency and love. She can portray it in her acting by trying please him, not getting him angry, always doing as he says etc Health and safety 1. Stacke d chairs There are many chairs that are stacked in corners it could be dangerous if they were to bloodline on to someone it could injure them so we made sure to keep them away(p) from us whilst acting.There are also some chairs with attached desks which are quite heavy and some arent extremely stable. So again we need to make sure they arent in our way when acting. 2. Board on wheels This board can be pushed on to someones foot or may fall on someone so is also dangerous to us so we keep it away from us. 3. Floor slickpery If we have slippery shoes the floor is also quite smooth so it may be easy for us to slip and hurt ourselves. 4. Lights If the lights are a bit wobbly they might possibly fall on someone, so we made sure they were fixed on securely.They made sure they had safety chains so that even if they fall they dont fall to the ground and so dont hurt someone or get damaged 5. trailing wires there are wires on the floor that can easily be tripped over, we made sure they we re pinned to the sides of the wall and dont come anyway near our acting pose (stage). Shoes They can be a problem if they are high heels or platforms if some were to accidentally trod on some one it could hurt them quite badly.Rope scene This is when the women are strangling the men with ropes, we had to use a technique that our drama teacher taught us of the person who was being strangled would actually be the one in control of what happens not the other person, so the other person is h former(a)ing onto the victim whilst they are moving around and acting as if theyre being strangled. Abuse scene There is a part where I am supposed to have slapped Priya but instead we make a noise and my go by doesnt touch her face she just fails like I had hit her.Helias necklace There is a scene where Helias character pulls off her necklace and drops it on the floor, this could be risky if the beads were to fall off and they scattered because someone could slip on them. So she will pull them a nd drop them gently but face like shes doing it with more(prenominal) force. Development of the play and my role When we had decided on the ideas of what we want in our play, using different ideas from some of the plays weve studied, as a group we all sat and discussed the next step which was the actual story-line of our play.This came quite easy for us as our main inspiration was about the oppression of women and how they are treat by men in a patriarchal society (mainly based on Yerma and Antigone). And we knew our climax has got to be about the anger and revenge of women, when we were talking about this I mentioned the jail scene in Chicago the musical where all the women were bitter and vengeful of their men, they had all murdered their husbands and were proud of it, they justify why they did it, from this we thought of the play being about proving the point or justifying how women are treated badly by men.So this brought us to the idea of having one man that had used a numb er of women and so is cheating and lying and not valuing their relationships but then these women figure it out and join together to get their own back. at long last after deciding on this idea we started trying out a scene we realised many lessons were being wasted by us just talking and thinking about what to do rather than trying out things to see if it works or not.The group were besides focused on numeration out what or how these women will get their own back, we came to the conclusion that the sole(prenominal) way to do this was to have it as an unrealistic scene. I started to think of how we could do this and I remembered a scene from my favourite TV show Friends where the three main female characters wanted to get rid of everything of their exs and phoebe the gipsy type character told them to throw everything thats theirs or they gave them into a fire and thats a remedy of letting go of their man.I liked the symbolism in the idea of the fire and their personal items repr esenting them, when I told this to the group we then came out with the idea of making the come back a fire voodoo scene This way we could represent the womens anger and frustration in a strange way as if its driven them insane and they just need to let it all out and this is their way. And the groovy thing about theatre is we can show this in a stylised performance and make it completely out of the ordinary.The revenge voodoo scene was the first scene we tried out, Dee volunteered to be the guy, the rest of us were then to be the angry women, Dee was defiantly on the ball that lesson I think she worked better when actually physically doing work she came up with the idea of having the guy wrapped in rope and each women had a piece of it in their hand and they were all tugging at him so that he was moving in different directions, and she also thought of a rock song that was appropriate for this scene.But then when trying to move on from there we realised it was far too complicated to do the individual stories of each women with that one guy because there were just too many women, thats when we thought of having three couples and this left out an actor (Beatrix) we thought of just having her as a mystical character, a devil like creature that likes to stir things and will be in the background of most scenes but invisible to everyone and the final voodoo scene will have been mean by her, she had brought the women together and put it into their heads to do the voodoo ritual.We started talking a lot about the voodoo scene we wanted dancing and light personal effects etc But we were wasting a lot of time just discussing minor details that can be dealt with later on so we all decided to just spilt into our couples and work separately on our individual stories and scenes, which would come before the voodoo scene, then near the end of the lesson wed come together and tell each other what wed done.In my couple I am the man and Priya my wife, we discussed reasons for h ow and why this relationship broke down it had to be of course the husbands fault and so a reason to why shes against men and wants revenge, when thinking of a patriarchy society and the problems with this I immediately thought of how man like to claim ownership over women and I remembered this film I had watched called Enough and it was about this man who was so obsessed with being in control he beat his wife just to make him feel like he had power over her.I told Priya about my idea of using domestic violence as the story of what happened in the midst of our couple, at first she wasnt so sure, she said itd be difficult to portray someone beating someone and it may turn out to be too much like a soap opera. But I tried to convince her we could make it work so she agreed to give it a go.When discussing with the other groups we then had our three reasons why these women are angry with their men, ours was he abused his wife, Dee and Ema had decided Ema was to be a young 14 year old g irl that was raped by Dee a 22 year old man, Helia and Elizabeth got their idea from Yerma, Elizabeth was the husband in this relationship and Helia the wife, she was desperate, almost obsessed with wanting a child but Elizabeths character isnt interested.In the prison scene of Chicago (mentioned in inspirations and research) they all chant one word which describes their story of what happened between them and their men (why they killed them). This made us think of giving a word to each woman and then in some of their scenes everyone else could whisper that word at certain times. Priya is Abuse, Helia is Obsession and Ema is Innocence these terminology all have an S sound quality which I think gives it more of an impact and gives it a mysterious atmosphere.Being a Muslim I wear a headscarf and I thought I could use this with the character, because I am a man I could put the scarf in a way that it represents a turban and so obviously this helped me to shape the character, because we aring a turban he could be an Asian, Persian or Arab, but being part Arab myself I thought Id probably find it easier to be something that I knew about.Being an Arab man then made me consider putting on an accent, to make it a little more interesting and then I thought of a background story between me and Priya just by knowing my character a little more. I thought that since I was being an Arab and Priya being English this would of course be a big culture clash, and being part English and part Egyptian myself I also knew about having a culture clash, and then this could be the reasons for him being insecure about their relationship and then leading to trying to control her by physical means.In the English culture its much more standard for women to socialise freely with men but Arabs do believe in socialising with both sexes but arent as lenient, They feel women should be protected and are seen as precious and need not always be on show for men to look at, so in the culture its no rmal to have segregated gatherings.But if Priyas character isnt of course accustomed to this she will find it normal to talk to guys in the same way she talks to girls but to him in his culture when a girl is very chatty to a boy their immediate thought is she fancies him and if he is an insecure controlling type of character this will irritate him and make him feel even more insecure and then he will feel he has to stop her. This is what I will use as my purpose for beating her. Acting as my character is quite difficult for me because Im extremely feminine in the way I walk, talk, my gestures etc nd being a man everything needs to be changed, I tried watching men in the street just to see how they hold themselves and move when they walk. But because Im quite slim and small its hard to move like someone that has broader shoulders and a larger physique. I also find it difficult to put myself in a mans shoes but using the techniques of Stanislavsky I try to understand my character in order for me to be him, everything he does should be for a reason (action for a purpose).For example my gestures arent to be as extended and flowing as I would usually do them being female they should be more strong and firm but then by him being Arab also gives him certain hand gestures more than a usual European man would do. up to now though I imagine him to be insecure inside, he is the type of character that would never tell anyone that he is insecure or upset, instead he would put on a stern face and hold it all in and also instead of ever blaming himself or seeing his mistakes he only acknowledges other peoples, so everything is someone elses fault not hisOnly by understanding how my character is and how his mind works did I find it easier to act as him. When acting out all our scenes that the couples had done separately, we realised that our scenes were far too realistic and life like which isnt what we all initially intended so we came together and discussed what sort of s cenes we want and that they should be done in a similar format etc We then came up with the idea of having three scenes in every couples section, scenes that are all of different type one realistic, one non- naturalistic and one documentary.It would just give the play more of a spice because there is quite a constant tone through out, which can be quite dull, so by seeing things from different perspectives we thought would make it more interesting. The realistic would obviously be what happened in their every life then the non naturalistic is their thoughts, their dreams, what happened but done in exaggerated dream-like way etcThe documentary scene we primitively thought of getting a voice of a man played by tape or CD reading out a tidings report but then we realised Beatrix needed more lines and so gave her the role of reading the reports, she would read statistics on domestic violence, rape and infertile men. And we thought of using Visual aids to make it a little more interest ing so having that information on a screen behind Whilst we were talking about visual aid we thought of the voodoo scene having a fire and to imitate the fire we could have an image of fire on the back screen during that scene.The first scene that me and Priya did which was me coming home and accusing her of waiting for another man and thats the build up of me abusing her, this idea I got from a lawful story of domestic violence (research). This was what we thought was too realistic and boring but we kept it because when we decided to have the three different types of scenes it balanced it out so seemed ok. We were going to start with the realistic scene but from that research I had done, the true story, I got another idea that we could do.The woman hears her husband coming home and just by hearing his footsteps gets extremely scared and by making this an unrealistic scene it can be very effective. Making the sounds of his footsteps and everything he does as loud exaggerated thuds, and as I get closer to Priya the thudding then starts to sound like heartbeats getting faster and faster and I put my hand on her shoulder and theres one last loud thud, Ive arrivedWe wanted to put this before the realistic scene of our argument but the group had a problem with this because Priya and I had actually already got an unrealistic scene and this would mean we have one more than the other couples. But I very didnt want to let this idea go I felt it would be very good to show the wifes fear of her husband. And so after some convert I won my case, under the condition we try and merge this scene with the realistic one. Final EvaluationWhen we watched ourselves on tape acting our piece, there were many good points I found but also things I felt needed to be improved. Most of our gestures the womens and the mens I thought were very good and to the point (action for a purpose). Although I found I needed to change my posture at points, my body language needs to be a lot more ma sculine Beatrix also needs to get more involved in her character so that she can do more gestures and facial expressions limit to the type of character she is.She is being a little cheeky and doing some gestures to portray that but we felt there needed to be more so that the audience has some understanding of what Beatrix is. Our tones of voice (men and women) were good and were believable but we need to slow down our pace and take our time when saying our lines. Our stylised techniques such as the toy box scene of when Helias character dreams of having a baby and we are all the toy dolls that dance around her, this looked really creative. We need to make sure all of us keep those scary toy smiles on so its even more affective.In most of our scenes we just need to make them run a little more smoothly and there were some incidences where people didnt know what scene was coming up and the other actors would leash at something for them to remember. This is important that we all help each other out if someone gets confused or forget their lines if we feel out the gap and extemporise with it which I ended up doing on the tap because Priya had forgotten one of her lines so I said her line but in a different way so that I was asking it to her in a question and she could just agree to it.The most important section we need to work on is our ending which isnt complete because we need music and need to figure out the choreography etc I think itd be useful to also make a clear definition when it has changed from stylised to realistic to documentary because we are just going from one to the next which makes it seem a bit scruffy peradventure if for example we had a news report tune before the documentary starts to give it a bit of an introduction.And in the stylised we could all say the words in cannon of the woman that is in the scene (e. g. innocence) repeatedly to give it that creepy atmosphere and making sure the audience know it isnt realistic. Overall the play ca me along very well, we all listened to each other and took on ideas and decided everything as a group so that we were all in agreement, we really worked together like a team, which I think pays off in our work.Everyone participated in what they thought of the scenes, lighting, music etc and all the actors had a great deal of respect for each other which made it easier to act side by side and help each other out. There may have been some weaker actors that came late and didnt give as much input into the piece and there were the stronger actors that held the play together, but everyone deserves credit for the amount of work put into the acting of our play.

The Disadvantages That Confront E-Mango.Com If It Does Not Leverage the Competitive Value of the Internet.

Leveraging the competitive value of the Internet Physical inventories have always been a major(ip) damage component of calling. Linking to suppliers in actual time dramatically enhances the classic goal of inventory turn. The Internet provides a multitude of opportunities for radically reducing the costs of designing, manufacturing, and selling superbs and services. E-mango. com, a fruit emarket seat, must take advantage of these opportunities or find itself at a significant competitive disadvantage. Identify the disadvantages that confront E-mango. om if it does not supplement the competitive value of the Internet. Case study Considering that E-mango. com is an online store and it in any case has a small store outlet which provides all kinds of fruits. a. Fresh fruits b. Dry fruits c. Fruit products much(prenominal) as jams, jellies, fruit syrup etc. In instantlys world Internet has be summon a major source for marketing. E problem is the conducting of business on the Inte rnet, not only buying and selling, but also serving customers and collaborating with business partners.Electronic business methods enable companies to link their internal and external data impact systems more efficiently and flexibly, to work more closely with suppliers and partners, and to check satisfy the needs and expectations of their customers. Each and every business are right off marketing their business through Internet, as it save time and cost and reaches a large number of customers in short span of time If Emango. com is not using the trends of todays world i. e. if the weavesite is not making routine of the various facilities in the Internet for marketing their goods then they may have to face lot of challenges. creation a fruit emarketplace, the goods need to be sold out as soon as possible. It also has other competitors who own a fruit emarketplace which makes it thorny to survive. Internet could provide a lot of advantages such as managing the cost, produce pro fit by the batch visiting the website, reach to a lot of people and and so incr comfort the business, provide an e-catalog for the customers thus enabling them to shop easier etc. The costs of not doing e-business include loss of customers to competitors with good websites and loss of potential revenue.The major areas affected without proper use of Internet in Business has been listed. 1. Convenience A visit to a store requires travel and must take place during business hours whereas online stores are addressable 24 hours a day, where business could be made at any hour of the day. Nowadays Internet access is available at home and office, so shopping would be easier if they are able to shop online. Online stores would be having e-catalog which provides the pictures and prices of the goods available which increases customers ease for shopping.Without a proper website maintained, customers need to come to the stores and search for the fruits, which is time consuming and this would i nitiate a customer to buy goods through another store which has a well maintained website. The websites will also be having pop-ups of the clearance and the deals for the day which will attract more customers. There are also online transactions which are fast. It can help improve the urge and accuracy of transactions. So as long as there is no proper usage of Internet the income would be less as customers would move to stores which provides a good business .The advantage of having a well maintained website is also that they can display pictures of fruits along with their nutritional benefits and how they contribute to the health, which fruit would taste good as juice and which would taste good as raw etc. Along with business customers would be able to derive a lot of entropys also, thus the competition for emango. com would always be high. Customers would prefer a better online business which is provided by others. 2. Cost-Effective Marketing and Promotion Using the web to market products guarantees to reach large number of customers at a nominal price.The cost of conducting business in Internet is substantially smaller than the traditional forms of business communication. Advertising techniques like pay per click advertising ensure that the advertiser only pays for the advertisements that are actually viewed. As it is fruit store only dry out fruits and fruit products need to ship to far distances. Most of the shipment would be around the local area thus it is cost effective(the local shipment would be similar to that of pap johns). Customers would prefer to have such an online store. The fruits could be bought in bulk or in small quantity. All these could be lacking for the emango. om thus causing loss. The emango. com would not be able to reach its customers and market in an easier way than the Internet. 3. Customer Service Customer service is the most important divisor in every business. With an online service the supplier could provide an improved cu stomer service. As the customer enters the website they could be greeted by a pop-up chat window. Many websites now provide an online chat, where the customers could chat with a customer care executive and clarify all the doubts about the products or any other details. Even the customer could pertain the customer service executive through phone which is a 247 service.Making customers happy is the important factor for improving the business and to gain benefits. All these customer services could not be provided if the Internet is not being utilized. 4. Selection The main advantage of a website is being able to quickly seek out deals for items or services. The deals and discounts could also be viewed as soon as we enter the website. Electronic catalogs and web pages present customers with updated information in real time about goods, services and prices. As with other aspects of ebusiness, it is important to match electronic catalog design and functionality to a companys business go als.This ease of ecatalogs cannot be provided without proper use on Internet. 5. Reviews The customers could provide the reviews about the products in the website, which would help to know the views of customer and improve the business. Also with the Internet, its easier to summarize and disassemble information about customers visiting and buying the website. This information can be used to modify promotional strategies to maximize sales. If there is no proper use of Internet this would not be possible. The rivalry for the E-mango. com is high as it they are not properlyusing the Internet for the better business.The competitors would gain high profit with a better website and better e-business technology. Thus the website e-mango. com needs to enhance itself with the various techniques provided by the internet to attract customers and increase profit. Waiting too long to move in to the gash of e-business may cause E-mango. com to lose its place in line entirely. References http//e -business-guide. net/advantages-internet-business-explained. html http//onlinebusiness. volusion. com/articles/e-business-advantages/ http//www. enetsc. com/ebusinessarticles. html

Production Strategy in China

Mattel outsources its production to mainland China through its Vendor Operations Asia (VOA), found at Hong Kong. VOA outsources to suppliers who are based at Hong Kong having their production setups in mainland China. These suppliers have the wherewithal to cut through the complex regulations and bureaucracy in China.Mattel outsources only its non core products and short life cycle products to China, which evict respond actually fast to product changes and modifications due to its strengths in existent processing and expertise in toy manufacturing.In House Production vs. OutsourcingIn signaling production offers significant control over quality, product safety, because of the direct control over the emerge chain by the companion. It protects the IP rights of the company by not giving the manufacturing expertise and designs to any supplier. On the other hand, in house production can cost significantly more than outsourcing. Also, the company has to acquire a wide management kno wledge base, to excel in supply chain management and manufacturing practices.Outsourcing significantly reduces production cost because of lower labor be, lower inputs and material processing be, and an existing infrastructure in manufacturing. So Mattel has better operational efficiency and reduced capital requirements. On the downside, quality is difficult to monitor, especially where in that location are secondary and tertiary suppliers who supply to the main vendor.A manufacturing plant needs to operate in an efficient manner. The support that is necessary for this is the supply chain, the be of running a factory, including labor costs, and regulatory aspects of the country. The supply chain available in the country must be able to supply to this industry. Labor costs must be low and the local Government must be supportive of the venture.Offshoring and OutsourcingWhen Mattel closes it American and European plants to set up its own manufacturing facilities in China, it is Offs horing. Offshoring happens when the company wants to manufacture by itself, but at a lower cost.When a Mattel factory in UK contracts out a portion of manufacturing to Poland or Mattel contracts an outside entity to totally manufacture a toy, it is outsourcing. Offshoring is a factory or operations shifting to some other country. Outsourcing is contracting an outside entity to do certain operations.Environmental Factors affecting Offshoring and Outsourcing in ChinaChina has lax IP rules. Hence a supplier could end up manufacturing a look alike of Mattel toys and get away with it. China is very sensitive about labor issues and rights. Mattels suppliers and the VOA sit in Hong Kong and production happens in mainland China. Hence, it is very difficult to maintain and monitor quality. Rising costs in China are making suppliers evade safety standards. amazonValue Creation to CustomersAmazon creates value through its exceptional supply chain practices. These practices modify Amazon to o ffer a wide variety of products, at the lowest cost, with the best offers, at the fastest delivery condemnation, with free shipping. These are achieved by integrity in supply chain management, by establishing DCs to cater to large demand groups and thus be able to serve customers quicker and better, generating high sales.Amazons Strategy EvolutionAmazon started as a pure virtual e-marketing company, which will not stock its products but will operate with strategic alliances and only shipping and sorting operations are done.To effectively serve its customers and to create value, the company has moved to becoming an e-marketing company which stocks, sorts and ships material with a very complex and sophisticated own supply chain and allied operations. It allows customers to sell their own products and partners with other sites that are looking for a channel. It has moved from an e-marketing company to a global internet channel brand.Amazons US and European StrategyThe US is a large market with no differences in terms of culture. So Amazon is dealing with customers who have the same language and lifestyles. In Europe, the company can not replicate its US strategies in totem. There are collar different large markets in Europe UK, Germany & France.Each has a different language, lifestyles and requirements. While in the US, the DCs can effectively stock the same items and supply them to the target geographies. But in Europe, with three different portals supplying different products, the strategy is different. Also, Europe has different regulations to be complied with in terms of pricing. So Amazon relies on postal agencies, for their efficiency and low costs to provide free shipping and thus show a saving for the customer.Amazon started taking checks and postal orders to gain market penetration. In Europe, there were book wholesalers, so Amazon had to enter into direct partnerships with hundreds of publishers, unlike the US. Vendors do not operate on EDN, so tim e taken for fulfillment of orders is more and also uncertainty of shipped quantity.

Human Growth & Development Essay

The environment plays a crucial role in development from the newborn to the adolescence. The environmental view according to Sameroff is that a persons IQ is largely influenced by culture and the surroundings in which the person is raised. Poor diet and lifestyle for example, taking alcohol during pregnancy rear result in brain damage and hence low IQ in a child. Some research has shown that people from some affable background tend to possess low IQ e. g. blacks due to varied factors including stimulation and diet.Their research also found out that when children are exposed to extreme stress such as domestic violence, their neurocognitive development is affected and thus lower intelligence. In this case when children are stressed their brains are harmed drastically. It is documented that babies require a lot of plank in the first 12 months of life to build stronger and healthy brains. Stimulated children score on IQ tests than the unstimulated. This implies that need adult attent ion and play to do better on IQ tests. In this case inventories such as computer will be a lot helpful.Moreover, some music can improve a childs IQ, for example the Mozart. However, it is possible that children with low levels of personal resources can reach the same level of achievement like that of the ones from highly advantaged social cadre. According to Caldwell and Bradley (1984), the HOME inventory is an index that depicts the quantity and quality of cognitive and emotional stimulation in the home environment. On visiting my dwells home, I found that there were three children ranging from age 6-12. They were actively involved in computer games.Their parents occasionally joined them in playing the games. It was kick the bucket that there was mutual understanding between the family members. On rating the intellectual environment I gave a high. Work Cited 1. Caldwell, Bradley. HOME inventory saucily York John Wiley. 198479 2. Sameroff AJ, Seifer R, Zax M. Early development o f children at risk for emotional disorder. Child Dev. 198247. Serial no. 199 3. Sameroff AJ, Seifer R, Baldwin A, Baldwin C. Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence the influence of social and family risk factors. Child Dev. 1993 6480-97

A Career in Social Work

The c atomic number 18er that I want to pursue is societal work. I enjoy public lecture to flock, helping them with their problems, and try to make their bad days better I already film some trained skills, which I have learned in places that I did some volunteer work in the past. I also worked babysitting children of disparate ages and tutored others in some basic subjects. My experience of having my own tiny business plus all the volunteer work in the places I mentioned above, gave me a head start by assisting individuals on a regular basis. befitting social service worker has many responsibilities.Some of the responsibilities are getting information to provide quality services in an efficient and effective manner to people with complex needs. To be a good social service worker requires a solid foundation of training, values, knowledge, theory and skills. I was born and raised in a big city and lived n the same street with my family, until the age of twenty. My parents have b een together for many years and I have 5 siblings. evolution up in the 1970s, having an abusive biological father was very difficult for my mother, my siblings and me.I felt that we were a comfortable family with all the things necessary to be happy. I was unmindful(predicate) that my biological father was abusive towards my mother, so was one of my brothers toward his wife. When I learned it, I was a teenager and it led for my siblings and I lean toward my grandmother and stepfather. Our families were change integrity by religion and the abuse. My stepfather was our pillar of support he always encouraged all of us to get an education. I had to learn rapidly to adjust to different situations and saw that folks Just were non all bad, ecause they had faced problems in their lives.This permitted me to grow and absorb in ways other children may have never imagined, and I be certain of that because of my family, it has added a great deal of my individual strength and approval of othe rs. I have also learned many usable skills and experiences throughout my adult life. Having a difficult time as a child myself and then being married to an abusive husband for 15 years, has tending(p) me the power and aspiration to become a mixer Service Worker. It will be fulfilling a lasting vision to help persons n need no matter the emergency they may be pursuing to remedy.When I was younger I always talked about being a teacher or a social worker. As I got older and started to build my life it changed. I went from being a simple receptionist to being an office clerk, where I have to not only answer phones, but learn many other skills at administrating an office. Although I went to school for to Office administration and didnt finished it, I always have the desire to serve and help others. With the determination and drive instilled in me there is no other ending but achievement and success.The one real slide I believe we can make in life is to not learn from the errors and c hallenges that come our way. In fact, it is in these mistakes and trials where I have learned the some and grow into a healthier and stronger person. I still feel in my soul that my career path is in social work and now that I know what career path I will take it is up to me to make it happen. I believe that my life experiences and skills demonstrate why the field Social Service Work is best suitable for me as an education and career.Considering my strengths, I am cooperative, g natured, generous, nelptul, numble and modest and I trust others. As a professional, I am non-judgmental, not hold responsible the client for their predicaments. Even if someone hurts my feelings, I am quick to forgive and forget. These qualities are essential for me, because I am working and will work with a variety of people, healthcare professionals, clients, and others that may exhibit inflexible and difficult personalities that may be challenging to work with. decision the right treatment or service fo r each client based on their needs requires a creative person.I am also particular, hard-working, organized, and, and take my responsibilities seriously. These qualities are appropriate for when I am working individually or with a team. My extroverted personality also suits my career objective as a social service worker as interaction with others is a significant portion of this kind of work. Regarding communication skills, I am talkative, assertive, sociable and active. One of my limitations is that, although I announce two languages fluently, my strong accent is not acceptable to some when it comes to interact with clients.I am vercoming this personal limitation by taking a pronunciation seam over the summer as a starting point. Some of my personal talents include being interested and passionate in a selfless and accomplished manner. I am capable to sustain a considerate and gentle manner, even in hectic circumstances. I have a high nominate for intellect, which shows that I s trive to acquire and preserve my existing knowledge, which is crucial for a worthy and passionate social service worker. I am honestly pertain with other individuals and try to treat everyone with consideration and compassion.I have always had the desire to study and strive in my area of interest. When I had an opportunity in 2005 to go back to school, I was fully committed to excel in my studies. My goal is not Just to get good grades, but also to fully show the concepts in my studies and be able to analyze them. There are many social issues in our society that I would like to personally contribute to for the advancement of society. Through learning, I was able to understand some of my own experiences from the past, and instead of taking them as a terrible lessons, I accepted them as a hallenging Journey.One of my academic goals is to keep up my above average grades. I put in enormous strength and hard effort into my studies. Upon arriving at this city, I was resolved that I wo uld spend my next two years in pursuit of new ideas and experiences. I come from a country with a rich social, ethnic and ethnic variety this helps me appreciate cultural sensitivity better as well as the clients traditional beliefs, when working with the particular client races. Beside English, I let out French and Spanish knowledge of two extra languages, will become n extra asset as a social service worker.The population that I want to work the most is the elderly. Elderly clients are friendly and willingly wait for a social service worker to visit them. well-nigh of them treat the worker as an acquaintance. Proficient detachment is required, so that I will not picture the client as a family, and to keep in mind that the objective is to help them improve their ability to do well without a lot of support. I am arranging my other areas of life close to my studies, so I can entirely commit and keep up with decent grades. Success is all can see in my future.

Collective Bargaining in the Public Sector

Collective dicker in the exoteric Sector Linda Howerton PHI 103 Informal Logic Instructor Ms. Tanya Martin October 22, 2012 ? Collective Bargaining in the Public Sector Union membership is today at an all time low. It has been steadily declining since the 1980s. Private sector union membership has been modify the most, while that of the public sector has remained relatively strong (Devinatz, 2011 Spring). Public cypherer unions, especially state and federal government unions, must be allowed to continue to quite a little corporately to ensure the mightys and short letter security of their members.Collective negotiate allows union members to befuddle a voice regarding their w get alongs, benefits, and on the job(p) conditions. According to Raymond Hogler, in the chore Law diary, Fall 2012, The erosion of institutions of collective bargain will inevitably lead to a diminution of wages, benefits, and working conditions for workers (Hogler, p. 163). Many public employees, es pecially teachers who work for the state, set about much lour put up than separate professionals. Collective bargaining allows public employees a much needed say about their jobs, wages, and benefits.Whereas teachers, for instance, come lower pay than many other professionals, collective bargaining has ensured that they have one of the best retirement systems. In addition, collective bargaining has protected teachers job tenure, thus preventing them from macrocosm fired without a due process hearing and other protections. The need for unions were a direct result of the unfair labor practices employed during the Industrial alteration beginning in the late 18th century and continuing on into the early 20th century.Since there were no labor laws initially, especially regarding child labor, women and children were a lot employed for long hours at low wages. At one time, women and children made up 75% of the factory work force since they could be hired for lower wages. Children p roved more malleable and adapted more easily to the newer methods employed. Children as young as eight years old were sent to work in the factories or in the mines where their subalterner bodies could fit into tight and often highly dangerous places (Bond, Gingerich, Archer-Antonson, Purcell, & Macklem, 2003).Children were also preferred at times to work in factories since their small hands could reach into tight places when moving parts became jammed. There were few safeguards in place to prevent the childrens hands and arms from becoming mutilated if caught between moving parts on a machine. During the late 1700s in England, a man named Slater employed a Pauper system whereby he utilize children from poor families as workers in his mills. These children worked twelve to sixteen hours a day for six days a week.Instead of being paid wages, these children received room and board, thereby alleviating the burden of feeding them from their families. Families of the children were appa lled at the tight discipline, lack of heat, and the working conditions in the mills. Many of the children chose to run away. When the employment of just children proved problematic, entire households were hired. The don negotiated the contract and stipulated the conditions for each family member (Tucker, 2005 May, p. 24). During the Industrial Revolution, government adopted a hands-off or laissez-faire attitude towards business.Therefore, business owners could treat their workers however they wished. Since children could be hired for less pay, they were hired in great numbers, working 12 to 14 hour days under horrible conditions. Many of these children became apprentices to the factory owners where they lived in miserable dormitories. They were frequently under-fed, ill-clothed, and beaten with fist and whip. There was a high death rate among child laborers (Hackett, 1992). Since all or most members of the family were working for upwards of eighteen hours daily, the family unit br oke down.Childrens family contact usually amounted to the few hours spent at home sleeping. Since many families lived in sh atomic number 18d housing with other families, family units withered even further. Children received little or no pedagogy, were malnourished and sickly, and experienced stunted growth. They grew up maladjusted since they had never been taught how to properly behave. The living conditions were f remunerateful with little or no sanitation. As a result, infant mortality skyrocketed during the Industrial Revolution over 50% of infants died before they eached two years of age (Bond, Gingerich, Archer-Antonson, Purcell, & Macklem, 2003). It is largely due to the unsafe conditions, abuse of laborers, especially women and children, and the workers lack of a voice over their employment that labor unions first came into existence. The earliest unions were established as friendly societies that charged dues to be used to assist workers during unemployment or sickness. It wasnt long before they grew into organizations seeking to win improvements for workers by the use of strikes and collective bargaining.Industrial workers progressively became involved politically to encourage the passage of laws favorable to them. This drive by workers to increase their political power, as heartyhead as the right to vote, was largely accountable for the 19th century spread of democracy (Hackett, 1992). Today, labor unions seek to control the supply of labor. This control over the labor supply enables unions to secure collective bargaining agreements that have brought millions of Americas workers into the middle class (Gitlow, 2012 Summer, p. 124).The fear of being unionized exerts psychological pressure on employers which can often serve as a check on their otherwise abusive and exploitative inclinations (Gitlow, 2012 Summer). According to Givan and Hipp, in a 24 nations study of workers views about the efficacy of unions, entitled Public Perceptions of Union Efficacy A Twenty-Four Country Study, most laborers who belong to unions feel most positive about the ability of unions to improve working conditions and job security. Women tend to hold a more positive view than men of the effects of unions on job security.Women are generally more susceptible to miscellaneous forms of workplace discrimination, which creates a greater need for the kind of protection provided by unions (Givan and Hipp, 2012 March, p. 25). Thus we can easily see the importance of unions for the protections they offer workers regarding pay, working conditions, the right to strike if necessary, and most especially, the right to collectively bargain. Unions and the right to collectively bargain are increasingly endangered across the United States.At least 17 states have passed legislation or have bills pending that would bad curtail the right of employees to collectively bargain (Rigiero, 2011 April). According to Deb Rigiero, in You are now launching the United Corp orations of America, We are rapidly becoming the workplace of the past the workplace without safety regulations the workplace without workers rights and the workplace without recognition of and appreciation for the worker (Rigiero, 2011 April, p. 14). Right to work (RTW) laws have been steadily eroding workers rights for many years already.Over 22 states have passed RTW laws. The RTW laws arent there to guarantee workers the right to a job, but are preferably aimed at the unions abilities to collect dues to aid in administering the unions. Under RTW laws, it is illegal to for unions to require workers to pay these dues. Without members dues to support them, unions power and strength of collective bargaining are severely undermined. Many unions may eventually find themselves endangered or extinct (Lafer, 2012 February 6).Then workers will find themselves without representation or even a voice regarding their rights. Those pile against public employee unions and collective bargainin g feel that public sector employees are receiving excessive pay and benefits at the expense of the American taxpayers (Schulz, 2012 January 10). Unions restrict the authority and steering of company managers. In addition, unions may have a polarizing effect between management and the employees of a company. Unions also restrict the ability of managers to deal one-on-one with employees.When unions are involved, management is unable to make unilateral changes that may involve hours, wages, or other issues dealing with employment (University of Maryland, Baltimore County, 2012). In wherefore U. S. should cheer for Wisconsin Gov. Scott Walker, Nick Schulz feels that The collective bargaining privilege gives teacher unions political power that is used to block reform efforts and shield K-12 education from entrepreneurial disruptions that threaten established ways of doing things (Schulz, 2012, Para. 11).Many Republicans acquire rail vouchers as the answer to declining test scores acr oss the United States. Vouchers are opposed by teacher unions and most educators who say that they would disrupt or damage our public education system in the U. S. If parents are allowed to use vouchers to choose which schooldays their children attend, then those parents will be able to select the school that best fits their childrens needs and learning style. Whereas this might be great for the child involved, it could pose difficulties for already cash-strapped public schools that would lose some of their state funding.Public school employees who belong to teacher unions should be treated as professionals, yet they receive pay far below that of other professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and engineers. Collective bargaining has allowed public union members to speak on their own behalf regarding their working conditions and job benefits. Public sector unions are currently under attack by right hand politicians supported by large corporations (McAlevey, 2011 March 7). If public union members are not allowed to use collective bargaining, then they will no longer have a voice in their wages, benefits, or working conditions.Wages could be cut at the whim of management. To finish their jobs for the day, many public employees might find themselves working off the clock since management can require more from them without recompense. According to an article by Raymond Hogler and Christine Henle, entitled The labialise on Public Sector Unions in the United States How Regional Culture Influences Legal Policy, Coincident with union declines, American workers experienced stagnant wages, a diminution of benefits, and overall degradation of working conditions (Hogler and Henle, 2011 Fall, p. 37). 22 states have now passed right to work laws which interfere with unions ability to maintain solidarity and acquire resources (Hogler and Henle, 2011 Fall, p. 138). Those states with right to work laws have less union density, as well as less equality for their citizens in te rms of health care, education, and income (Hogler and Henle, 2011 Fall, p. 143). Public union employees must be allowed to continue bargaining collectively to protect their right to have a voice in their working conditions, wages, and benefits.Collective bargaining ensures that public union members make a livable wage to support their families now, as well as having a secure retirement pension waiting for them when they retire. Many politicians indicate that teachers earn too much money. A teacher I greet now makes below the national poverty level, yet he holds a Masters Degree plus 30 hours. He is not an free case. Many teachers who belong to a teachers union still make salaries below the national poverty level. If their pay erodes even further, then many teachers will be unable to afford to continue teaching.Teachers and other public employee unions are there to support and protect great teachers, not cover for any bad ones. simulatet we want to hold on to the dedicated teacher s who have given of themselves to ensure that all children receive a free quality public education? ? References Bond, E. , Gingerich, S. , Archer-Antonson, O. , Purcell, L. , & Macklem, E. (2003). Impact of the Industrial Revolution. Retrieved Sunday, October 21, 2012, from http//industrialrevolution. sea. ca Devinatz, V. (2011, Spring). U. S. Trade Unionism Under Globalization The Death of Voluntarism and the Turn to Politics?Labor Law Journal. 62(1). 16-29. Retrieved Saturday, September 29, 2012, from EBSCOhost AN 59982464 Gitlow, A. (2012, Summer). Ebb and pass in Americas Trade Unions The Present Prospect. Labor Law Journal. 63(2). 123-136. Retrieved Saturday, October 13, 2012 from EBSCOhost AN 78023126 Givan, R. & Hipp, L. Public Perceptions of Union Efficacy A Twenty-Four Country Study. Labor Studies Journal. 37(1). 7-32. Retrieved Saturday, October 13, 2012, from EBSCOhost inside 10. 1177/0160449X11429264 Hackett, L. (1992). Industrial Revolution. History World Internationa l.Retrieved Sunday, October 21, 2012, from http//history-world. org/Industrial Intro. htm Hogler, R. (2012, Fall). Constitutionalizing Paycheck Protection What Knox v. Service Employees International Union Means for American Labor. Labor Law Journal. 63(3). 153-164. Retrieved Saturday, September 29, 2012, from EBSCOhost AN80170928 Hogler, R. and Henle, C. (2011, Fall). The Attack on Public Sector Unions in the United States How Regional Culture Influences Legal Policy. Labor Law Journal. 62(3). 136-144. Retrieved Saturday, September 29, 2012, from EBSCOhost AN66687318References Lafer, G. (2012, June 2). Right to Work for Less. Nation. 294(6). 24-26. Retrieved Saturday, October 13, 2012, from EBSCOhost AN 70466585 McAlevey, J. (2011, March 7). Labors Last Stand. Nation. 292(10/11). 22-26. Retrieved Saturday, September 29, 2012, from EBSCOhost AN 58504081 Rigiero, D. (2011, April). You are now entering the United Corporations of America. Please leave your union card at the border. M assachusetts Nurse Advocate. 82(3). 14. Retrieved Saturday, October 13, 2012, from EBSCOhost AN 2011071259 Schulz, N. 2012, January 10). Why U. S. should cheer for Wisconsin Gov. Scott Walker. USA Today. Retrieved Saturday, September 29, 2012, from EBSCOhost AN JOE207214460212 Tucker, B. (2005, May). Liberty is Exploitation The Force of Tradition in Early Manufacturing. OAH Magazine of History. 19(3). 21-24. Retrieved Sunday, October 21, 2012, from JSTOR http//www. jstor. org/stable/25161943 University of Maryland, Baltimore County. (2001, January 24). Pros and Cons of Collective Bargaining. Retrieved Monday, October 22, 2012, from www. umbc. edu/uwaaup/ collective. htm

Comparing Ireland and Denmark ECC Essay

Choose two countries and comp atomic number 18 their barbeles to early childhood dread and education. This essay testament introduce and compare approaches to early childhood care and education in Denmark and Ireland. It will specifically focus on comparing the pedagogical approach, plan content and the inclusion of ethnic nonage children recovered 0-6 historic period attending early childhood settings in both(prenominal) countries. Provision of go As one of the oldest nations within Europe, Denmark has made the welfare of families with children top priority within government.Under their Social Services Act, matters relating to the care and education of children is broken down. The Ministry of Social Services is responsible for day care facilities dagtilbud, while the Ministry of information is responsible for pre-school go bornehaveklasse, primary and lower secondary and afterschool services and forest kindergartens are also available. These services are based on the rig hts of children outlined in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (OECD, 2000). In Denmark children are not required to enter the primary school sector until they are seven years old.In Ireland, there has been very little funding and resources into the development of childcare provisions with many working families relying on family members or child-minders filling the gap. Full day care exists at a cost and sessional services either morning or afternoon are in operation. In 2010, the Office of the Minister for Children and Youth affairs introduced a voluntary, universal free pre-school year for children aged three years and two months and less than quaternity years and seven months. For the year 2010/11, over 94% of eligible children were participating in the scheme (Dept. f Education & Skills, 2011). While it is compulsory for children to enter the primary education system at six years old, it is relevant to note that many children enter the system in the September, follo wing their fourth birthday payable to the lack of childcare provisions available.The Irish welfare state seems reliant on offering funds benefits rather than services especially for the youngest group of children 0-2 years (OECD, 2010). Pedagogy French, 2007 defines pedagogy as the practice or craft of teaching in the interactive process between teachers and learners and the learning nvironment which includes family and the community. Under Siolta, the national step framework it is defined as the range of interactions to support the holistic development of children by embracing both care and education within settings. Denmark has a strong historical background in relation to the pedagogy of early care and education practitioners. The first training programme was utilize in 1885 for those working from the frobelian approach in education this formed a basis for the two year study programme implemented in 1904.In 1992, an integrated training system was established to combine theor y with practice. Those training to be social pedagogues complete three and a half year degree programme learning theoretical, kitchen-gardening based subjects and activity based subjects with stints in placement (OECD,2000). Ireland in comparison has yet to regulate for straight-laced qualifications within the sector with only those working with pre-primary classes having the appropriate qualification bachelor of education.In order for the pre-school year to be implemented room leaders must have a minimum qualification of a Level 5 major award in ECCE (Dept. of Education &Skills, 2011). Curriculum French, 2007, states that a curriculum be implemented in settings for childrens learning should contain a body of knowledge with a acquire set of goals and objectives. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) in 2004 wrote that curriculum refers to all learning experiences, whether formal or informal, planned or unplanned, which contribute to a childs development.Denm arks curriculum for children aged 0-6 years is predominately play based and incorporates the holistic development of children. Children work in partnership with the pedagogues throughout periodical life. The main aims of the curriculum are to ensure children learn and experience the natural environment while gaining a true understanding of the Danish and other cultures represented. In 2004, a new law of pedagogical curriculum to support, lead and challenge the learning of children was introduced (Starting Strong 2, 2006).This outlined that all centres had the responsibility to outline their own curriculums with the cooperation of ply and passed by the board of parents and local authorities, the aspect of learning was not to become too structured. Six dimensions of aims as themes are to be represented within the curriculum. These include personal competences, social competences, language, body and movement, reputation and nature phenomena and cultural forms of expression and value s (Brostrom, 2006).

Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh Essay

heathen free radical Of Bangladesh 1. Introduction BANGLADESH IS kinda RICH IN social CULTURE. there argon roughly THIRTY-FIVE ETHNIC COMMUNITIES sustainment IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE COUNTRY. THE MAJOR ETHNIC COMMUNITIES be CHAKMA, MURMA, GARO, SANTAL, HAJONG, TIPRA, KHASI, MURANG, SHENDHU, PANKO and so forth THEY STRUGGLE TO brinyTAIN THEIR tone STYLE, CULTURE AND PROTECT DISTINCT unearthly lookS FROM THE exploit OF THE DOMINANT CULTURE AND RELIGIONS. IN THE NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN BELT OF BANGLADESH A NUMBER OF ETHNIC COMMUNITIES abide WHO STILL excite TO STRUGGLE HARD TO SUSTAIN THEIR ORIGINAL CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL HERITAGE.THE ADIVASIS IN THIS role COMPRISES OF SEVERAL GROUPS SANTAL, ORAON, MUNDA, MAHALI, MAHATO, MALPAHARA and so on AMONG THE ETHNIC mint IN THE NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN BELT OF BANGLADESH SANTALS atomic number 18 LARGEST IN NUMBER. nevertheless thither IS NO ACCURATE AND RELIABLE STATISTICS REGARDING THEIR ACTUAL people. in that location IS besides A long DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL FIGURES AND ESTIMATES.ACCORDING TO THE GOVERNwork forceT CENSUS OF 1991, THE ADIVASI POPULATION WAS ESTIMATED 3,14,337 IN 16 ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICT OF THE RAJSHAHI DIVISION. provided AS CLAIMED BY AN INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY LEADER, BADLA ORAON OF DINAJPUR ADIVASI ACADEMY, THE NUMBER OF INDIGENOUS multitude IN RAJSHAI DIVISION WAS 3,222,000 WAY BACK IN 1984.A SURVEY REPORT REVEALS THAT THE amount of money POPULATION OF SANTAL IS 143932 IN DINAJPUR, RAJSHAHI, BOGRA, PABNA AND SOME opposite beAS OF BANGLADESH. ACCORDING TO THE new(prenominal) SOURCES, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SANTALS argon very much higher(prenominal) THAN ESTIMATED. approximately OF THE SCHOLARS ALSO QUESTI aceD THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE NUMERICAL DATA. IN THEIR OPINION, THE CENSUS TAKES LANGUAGE AS THE BASIS FOR IDENTIFYING whatever PERSON AS BENGALI OR INDIGENOUS. THEY move over ALSO exclusivelyEGED THAT THE EXISTING POLICY IS TO fork up THE NUMBER LO WER THAN THE ACTUAL NUMBER. 2 P a g e. heathenish convention Of Bangladesh 2. historic Background of the Santals SINCE HOW LONG THE SANTALS LANDED IN THE TERRITORY OF picture BANGLADESH, IS non PRECISELY KNOWN. SOME regard THAT THE KHERWARS REACHED THE LAND OF BENGAL IMMEDIATELY afterward THE FIRST CLASHES WITH THE INVADING ARYAN TRIBES (2500 B. C. ). WITH all(prenominal) PROBABILITY THE SANTALS LANDED IN BANGLADESH WITH THEIR ACTUAL ETHNIC IDENTITY, non after(prenominal) 1000 B. C. IT IS PROBABLE THAT THE SANTALS SCATTERED by dint ofOUT BENGAL AT THE cartridge clip OF THE MUSLIM INVASION OF THIS REGION DURING THE LAST DECADES OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY OR AT THE BEGINNING OF 13th CENTURY. IN THE haggle OF FR.LUIZI PUSSETTO THE SANTALS RETIRED PROGRESSIVELY TOWARD much CALM REGIONS OR W here(predicate) IT WAS much EASY TO DEFEND THEMSELVES FROM THE INVADERS IN LATER TIMES, WITH THE historical SANTAL REVOLUTION IN 1855 low THE BRITISH COLONIAL RULE IN THE Indian SUBCONT INENT, WHEN 30,000 THOUSAND SANTALS ARE trustD TO bring forth BEEN KILLED, IT IS beyond ANY DOUBT THAT many OF THE SANTALS WERE DISPERSED INTO DISTANT LANDS AND geographically ISOLATED TERRITORIES. earthly concernY OF THEM EVEN CROSSED THE RIVER GANGES AND END UP IN THE EAST, THE PART OF PRESENT BANGLADESH.MANY THINK THAT THE EARLY SANTALS CAME TO NORTH BENGAL IN SEARCH FOR JOB OPPORTUNITIES, E modifiedLY WHEN THE RAILWAY TRACKS WERE UNDER CONSTRUCTION during the British rule in the second half of the 19th century. This may be bingle of THE REASONS THAT MOST SANTALS IN BANGLADESH ARE arrange SETTLING ON BOTH SIDES OF THE RAILWAY LINES FROM NORTH TO SOUTH.2. 1 THE realise SANTAL REGARDING THE NAME SANTAL, OPINIONS DIFFER AMONG THE SCHOLARS. FOR SKREFSRUD, THE NAME SANTAL IS A CORRUPTION OF SAONTAR, AND WAS ADOPTED BY THE TRIBE after(prenominal) THEIR SOJOURN FOR SEVERAL GENERATIONS IN THE COUNTRY AROUND SAONT IN MIDNAPUR. W. B. OLDHAM OPINED THAT SANTAL IS AN ABBREVIATION OF S AMANTAWALA, WHICH HAS ITS ETYMOLOGY FROM SANSKRIT SAMANTA, AN another(prenominal) NAME devoted TO THE COUNTRY AROUND SAONT. OM every(prenominal)EY IS OF THE OPINION THAT SANTAL IS AN ENGLISH course ADOPTED FROM HINDI WHICH CORRESPONDS WITH THE FORM SAOTAL employ BY THE BENGALI SPEAKING PEOPLE.MOST ANTHROPOLOGISTS AGREE THAT SANTAL IS A NAME GIVEN TO THIS TRIBE BY NON-SANTALS. HOWEVER, SANTALS PREFER TO CALL THEMSELVES HOR MEANING HUMAN BEING OR PERSON. FOR THE SANTALS THE CONCEPT HOR BEARS A RICH connotation TO MEAN A PERSON WITH QUALITIES OF INTELLECT, OF KNOWLEDGE, OF WISDOM THEY REFER THEMSELVES AS A TRIBE WITH DIGNITY AND secure HUMAN POTENTIALITY.THE SANTALS ARE PROUD OF THEIR IDENTITY THAT DEFINES THE TRAITS OF SOLIDARITY AND UNIQUENESS AS A GROUP. 3 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 2. 2 ORIGIN, RACE, AND LANGUAGE AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE SANTALS, VERY dinky IS KNOWN FOR authorized. THE SANTALS establish NO RECORDED HISTORY. bid OTHER ANCIENT SOCIETIES, SANTALS HAVE TRIED TO research THE MYSTERIES OF CREATION, HISTORY AND animateness BY MEANS OF MYTHS AND LEGENDS. FOLLOWING THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA, SOME AUTHORS CLASSIFY SANTALS AS PRE-DRAVIDIAN AND OTHERS AS PROTO-AUSTROLOIDS AND OTHERS AS ABORIGINALS OF THE NORTHWEST.THUS, THE OPINIONS IN THIS RESPECT ARE VERY DISCORDANT. THE SANTALS DO HAVE THEIR OWN MYTHOLOGY OF CREATION AND MANY BELIEVE THAT THEY ALL HAVE COME FROM PILCU HARAM AND PILCU BUDHI, WHICH IS LIKE ADAM AND EVE IN THE BIBLE. SANTALI IS THE MOTHER applauder SPOKEN BY THE SANTALS. IT IS A MUNDA LANGUAGE OF THE KHERWAR GROUP THAT BELONGS TO THE MUNDA-MON-KHMER OR AUSTRO-ASIATIC SUB-FAMILY. notwithstanding THERE ARE OTHER DIFFERENT OPINIONS ON THIS TOO.ACCORDING TO N. PRASAD, SANTALI IS THE RICHEST DIALECT AMONG ALL THE TRIBAL DIALECTS OF BIHAR. 2. 3 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION IN BANGLADESH, THE SANTALS ARE set MOSTLY IN NORTH BENGAL (NORTHERN PART OF BANGLADESH) ESPECIALLY IN THE THEN great DISTRICTS OF DINAJPUR, RANGPUR, BOGRA, A ND RAJSHAHI.ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1881, THE SANTALS RESULTED PRESENT IN THE DISTRICT OF KHULNA, PABNA AND CHITTAGONG IN THE SOUTH. MANY SAY THAT THE SANTALS, WHO ARE IN SYLHET, ARE THE ONES WHO MIGRATED FROM THE DISTRICTS MENTIONED ABOVE AND CAME HERE MAINLY TO WORK IN THE TEA GARDENS AS LABORERS. IN SHORT, THE SANTALS OF BANGLADESH ARE ALMOST ALL DERIVED FROM THOSE EMIGRATED FROM THE SANTAL PARGANA IN INDIA AND nonHING DISTINGUISHES THEM FROM THOSE WHO ARE STILL alive THERE, WITH THE EXCEPTION, PERHAPS OF THE office OF BANGLA WORDS THAT ARE SANTALIZED.IN RECENT TIMES SOME OF THE BANGLADESHI SANTALS ALSO STARTED GOING ABROAD fetching EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES. 4 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 3. THE humansVIEW THE SANTALS ARE unproblematic AND UNSOPHISTICATED PEOPLE. LIKE ANY OTHER PEOPLE, THE SANTALS HAVE DEVELOPED THEIR OWN WORLDVIEW, A dodge desirable TO DEAL WITH THE BASIC PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND ITS MEANING. THEY HAVE PERCEIVED THE ENIGMA AND THE BASIC DICHOTOMY O F HUMAN humansLIFE AND DEATH, honorable AND EVIL FROM THEIR OWN PERSPECTIVE. FOR THE SANTALS, LIFE, HEALTH, WEALTH, PROSPERITY, HAPPINESS, TRIBAL SOLIDARITY, RELIGIOUS article of faith, MORES, ETC., ARE GOODAND DEATH, ILLNESS, POVERTY, MISFORTUNE, INJURY ETC. ARE EVIL. THEIR RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES IS MEDIATED THROUGH THEIR CULTURE AND ARE expressed IN monetary value OF SYMBOLS, METAPHORS, MYTH, LEGENDS, FOLKLORE, SONGS, CULT, riteS AND SO ON. THE Santals consider Th kur Jiu ? (Life Giver) or Cando Baba (Sun Father) or Marang BURU (GREAT MOUNTAIN) AS THE SOURCE OF ALL GOOD WHILE IT IS THE EVIL EYE, THE evil mouth and the b ric bonga ? or malevolent spirits who causation harms in human LIFE.THEREFORE, WHILE ACKNOWLEDGING THE SUPREME BEING, THEY ALSO PROPITIATE THE BONGA IN AN ATTEMPT TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS OF SUFFERING, SICKNESS, AND OTHER CRISIS. ALL THESE QUITE OFTEN LEAD THEM TO SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS AND GIVE RISE TO PROMINENCE OF THE FEAR OF THE BONGA. FOR THE SANTALS EVERY N EWBORN CHILD COMING FROM THE INVISIBLE AND SHADOWY WORLD NEEDS TO BE PURIFIED, IDENTIFIED AND INTRODUCED TO THE SANTAL SOCIETY. such(prenominal) OF SUCH REALITIES ARE EXPRESSED THROUGH THE RITUAL CEREMONIES PERFORMED AFTER A CHILD IS born.The ritual of the janam ch ti r? ? (birth purification and name-giving ritual) is ONE EXAMPLE WHERE THESE ASPECTS ARE ENACTED THROUGH BATHING, SHAVING THE HEAD OF THE cocker, DIVINING OF ARWA strain (UNBOILED RICE) GpeltingS AND have OF THE BABY BY THE COMMUNITY. THE DEATH PURIFICATION CEREMONIES LIKE FUNERAL RITES OF BHANDAN, OR MORA KARAM (AFTER-DEATH CELEBRATION) PROVIDE FURTHER DETAILS OF THE SANTAL-BELIEF SYSTEM THAT THE knackered PERSON GOES BACK TO THE SAME SPIRIT-WORLD OF LIFE FROM WHERE HE/.SHE HAD COME AS A BABY AND be DEFILED AND DEFILING, FOR WHICH REASON non moreover THE FAMILY THAT NEEDS PURIFICATION, hardly THE VERY RETURN OF THE dead person PERSON TO ITS ORIGINAL STATE OR SHADOWY-WORLD IS ALREADY DEFILING BECA drug abuse I T IS A TRIBELESS-STATE, CONDEMNED AND SINFUL STATE AND BECA mapping IT HAS BEEN CREATED FOR THE PUNISHMENT OF THE SINS OF edacity AND PRIDE. HENCE, THE DECEASED PERSON NEEDS TO BE BROUGHT BACK 5 P a g e.Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh SPIRITUALLY TO HIS/HER OWN FAMILY AND IS INSTALLED AS AN INVISIBLE MEMBER AS HAPRAM (ANCESTOR). THE DECEASED, ALTHOUGH INVISIBLE, REMAIN A imperishable MEMBER OF THE FAMILY AND ARE REMEMBERED AND RESPECTED DURING ALL THEIR FAMILY OCCASIONS. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT WHEN A HUMAN BEING BECOMES PERFECTLY FREE FROM ALL GREED AND PRIDE THIS STATE give BE REMOVED AND THAT WILL BE THE NEW CREATION, WHICH IN CHRISTIANITY may BE COMPARED WITH THE STATE OF SALVATION.FOR THE SANTALS, THERE IS NO CLEAR DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE sublime AND THE PROFANE, RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS, SPIRITUAL AND THE MATERIAL AREAS OF LIFE. ANIMALS AND THE MATERIAL WORLD ARE AT THE DISPOSAL OF HUMAN BEINGS FOR THEIR SELF-PRESERVATION AND WELL-BEING. MOREOVER, SANTAL-LIFE IS CLOSELY r elate TO NATURE AND TO THE WHOLE OF CREATION. LAND AND FOREST REMAIN UNITED WITH SANTAL-IDENTITY AND ARE VERY MUCH REFLECTED IN THEIR LIVES, cope, POETRY, SONGS, DANCE AND MUSIC. THE SANTALS, FOR EXAMPLE, ADDRESS TO THE SUPREME BEING AS CANDO BABA (SUN FATHER) AND THE STARS TOO HAVE DIFFERENT NAMES.ACCORDING TO ARCHER, ALTHOUGH FIELDS, HOUSES, MEN AND WOMEN SEEM TO CONSTITUTE A SANTAL colonisation, SANTALS REGARD THEM AS AT MOST A PORTION OF THEIR TOTAL WORLD. 6 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 4. THE SANTALS IN THEIR SOCIO-CULTURAL REALITIES 4. 1 THE SANTAL-village THE SANTAL VILLAGE IS A PATTERN OF SANTAL LIVING AND IT IS THE MOST TRADITIONAL AND ANCIENT INSTITUTION, WHICH CRYSTALLIZES THE WHOLE SYSTEM OF mixer, POLITICAL, AND RITUAL STRUCTURES. IT COMES INTO populace THROUGH THE SPECIAL DISPENSATION OF THE BONGA AND IS SANCTIFIED BY THEIR BLESSINGS.THE PRESENCE OF DIFFERENT CLANS IN A VILLAGE makeS THE saucer OF A COMMUNITY LIVING AND OBVIOUSLY THE DEMOCRATIC CHARACTER OF THE VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION ITSELF IS A narrow OF INCREDIBLE RICHNESS OF THE SANTAL SOCIETAL DEALING AND LIVING. A SANTAL VILLAGE IS DEMARCATED WITH AN IMPLICIT BOUNDARY SO THAT IT MAY REMAIN FREE FROM OUTSIDE INTERFERENCE OF EVIL SPIRITS. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT QUARRELS AMONG FAMILIES AND GROUPS IN THE VILLAGE, NATURAL CALAMITIES, SICKNESS, EPIDEMICS, ETC. , ARE CAUSED BY LACK OF BALANCE BETWEEN THE FORCES OF GOOD AND EVIL.4. 2 brotherly STRUCTURE OF SANTAL VILLAGE THE firsthand FEATURE OF EVERY SANTAL VILLAGE IS THE MANJHI COUNCIL OR THE VILLAGE COUNCIL HEADED BY A MANJHI (HEADMAN). THE VILLAGE COUNCIL IS THE REPRESENTATIVE organic structure OF THE COMMUNITY CONSISTING OF SEVEN OFFICIALS, NAMELY MANJHI, PARANIK (A DEPUTY HEADMAN), square up MANJHI (AN OVERSEER OF THE VILLAGE ON MORAL ISSUES), JOG PARANIK (ASSISTANT TO JOG MANJHI), GODET (A MESSENGER), NAEKE (A closure priest), and his assistant is Kud m Naeke?. These OFFICIALS IN FACT ARE THE SERVANTS, NOT THE MASTERS OF THE village and their role is purely functional.The M njhi? remains as the overall LEADER OF THE VILLAGE COUNCIL AND PRESIDES OVER THE VILLAGE MEETING BUT WITH THE accredited PRINCIPLE THAT NO ONE OVERRULES ANY ONE ELSE. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE CATEGORICALLY DIVIDED AMONG THE MEMBERS IN ORDER TO AVOID ANY OVERLAPPING. THE COUNCIL MEMBERS PERFORM THEIR FUNCTIONS IN compliance WITH THEIR TRIBAL CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS.THE PATTERN OF THE VILLAGE GOVERNANCE OF THE SANTALS IS MOSTLY DEMOCRATIC IN CHARACTER LIKE ANY OTHER DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTION. HOWEVER IN PRESENT TIME, WITH THE INTRODUCTION OF THE GOVERNMENT-SPONSORED UNION PARISAD ( topical anaesthetic ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL) THE SOCIAL CONTROL OF THE TRADITIONAL m njhi ? council of the Santals is mostly undermined.7 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh FOLLOWING THE PATRIARCHAL PATTERN, THE MANJHI (LEADER) OF THE VILLAGE FOR THE SANTALS, IS of all time A MALE. THE TITLE OF THE MANJHI IS everydayLY HEREDITA RY AND IT IS PASSED ON PATRILINEALLY. NOW-A- daytimeS, THE MALE MEMBERS OF THE VILLAGE MAY ELECT OR EVEN SELECT THEIR OWN HEADMAN UPON green CONSENSUS. THE TERM OF OFFICE IS INDEFINITE BUT CAN BE ALTERED BY GENERAL placement ACCORDING TO THE NEED. ALTHOUGH THE OFFICE OF THE HEADMAN IS VOLUNTARY AND HONORARY IN NATURE, THE MEMBERS OF THE MANJHI COUNCIL ARE RESPONSIBLE TO THE COMMUNITY FOR THE runny RUNNING OF THE VILLAGE PARTICULARLY FOR SOCIAL MATTERS.4. 3 THE CLANS SANTALS ARE ENDOGAMIC AS A PEOPLE BECAUSE THEY CANNOT GET MARRIED OUTSIDE THEIR TRIBE, BUT THEY ARE EXOGAMIC AS CLAN BECAUSE THEY CANNOT BE marry between the same clan (p ris? ). Traditionally the Santals used to have FOSTERED A TOTAL OF TWELVE CLANS BUT UNFORTUNATELY IN THE COURSE OF HISTORY ONE HAS BEEN MISSING. THE CLANS ARE 1) BASKEY, 2) BESRA, 3) CORE, 4) HASDAK, 5) Hembrom, 6) Kisku, 7) Marandi, 8) Murmu, 9) P uria, 10) Soren, 11) Tudu, and ?12) BEDEA (THE LOST ONE). MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLANS ARE TO REGULATE MARRIAGE, INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION AND AFFILIATION (ALI 1988 ALSO HOSSAIN 2000). ONE BECOMES A CLAN MEMBER BY BIRTH. IT IS state THAT THESE CLANS ARE HIERARCHICALLY ORDERED ON THE BASIS OF OCCUPATION, LIKE Kisku raja (king), Marandi Kipis r ? (wealthy or richer), Murmu Th kur ? (priest), Soren Sip hi ? (warrior), Tudu M nd ri ? ? ? (musician), and so on and so forth. HOWEVER, ACCORDING TO THE RESEARCHER, THESE OCCUPATIONAL HIERARCHIES OF condition DO NOT HAVE ANY IMPACT ON THE SANTALS IN DAILY LIVES. 4. 4.FAMILY AND MARRIAGE FAMILY IS THE master(a) UNIT OF HUMAN SOCIETY. THE FAMILY AMONG THE SANTALS CAN BE TERMED AS OF biologic, JOINT, AND EXTENDED. A.HUSBAND, HIS WIFE AND THEIR UNMARRIED CHILDREN FORM PART OF THE BIOLOGICAL OR NUCLEAR FAMILY. A HUSBAND, HIS WIFE AND HIS MARRIED AND UNMARRIED SONS AND DAUGHTERS AND SOMETIMES HIS OLD PARENTS, BROTHER AND HIS FAMILY FORM PART OF THE JOINT FAMILY OR EXTENDED FAMILY TYPE. ACCORDING TO THE SANTALS, MARRIAGE IS AN UNION BETWEEN A MAN A ND A cleaning lady, WHICH IS SOCIALLY RECOGNIZED CULTURALLY AND RELIGIOUSLY IT ALLOWS THE COUPLE TO LIVE IN A FAMILY. A SANTAL MARRIAGE CAN BE DESCRIBED ALSO AS A LEGAL TRANSFER OF habituation OF THE 8 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh BRIDE, FROM HER FATHERS FAMILY TO THE organizeS FAMILY.BY THIS TRANSFER, THE primpS FAMILY DOES NOT exactly ASSUME GUARDIANSHIP BUT ALSO ASSUMES CONTROL OVER ALL HER AFFAIRS. THROUGH MARRIAGE THE BRIDE LOOSES HER PATERNAL LEGAL IDENTITY AND ACQUIRES THE IDENTITY OF THE GROOMS FAMILY. IN THE INSTITUTIONAL SENSE, MARRIAGE IS THE PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN REGULATED BY CUSTOMARY LAWS THAT ENHANCE LEGAL UNION BETWEEN THE SEXES AND DEFINE THE PROCEDURES FOR ESTABLISHING THE HUSBAND-WIFE RELATION, THE RECIPROCAL OBLIGATIONS AND THE ACCEPTED RESTRICTIONS UPON ITS PERSONNEL. AS TO THE ORIGIN AND INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE, THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE CREATOR.HIMSELF HAS ESTABLISHED MARRIAGE. THAT IS, THE THAKUR JIU WHO CREATED THE FIRST HUMAN P AIR (PILCU HARAM AND PILCU BUDHI) HAS ALSO INSTITUTED MARRIAGE. ALTHOUGH THERE ARE SOME INSTANCES OF POLYGAMY, MONOGAMY IS THE NATURE OF MOST SANTAL MARRIAGES. BESIDES SERVING SEXUAL NEEDS AND replica OF HEIRS, A SANTAL MARRIAGE HAS ALSO OTHER PURPOSES, SUCH AS COMPANIONSHIP, FORMATION OF FAMILY, ECONOMIC SECURITY, COOPERATION IN THE FAMILY ENTERPRISE, SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SECURITY, ETC. THUS, SANTAL MARRIAGE IS NOT but BETWEEN cardinal PERSONS OF OPPOSITE SEX BUT IT ALSO BECOMES A BOND OF UNION BETWEEN TWO FAMILIES, TWO VILLAGES, AND.ALSO INFLUENCES THE CIRCLE OF race AMONG THE RELATIVES. M. A. JALIL MENTIONS FOUR TYPES OF MARRIAGE AMONG THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH. THESE ARE 1) DANGWA BAPLA (CONTACT MARRIAGE), 2) ANGIR BAPLA (LOVE MARRIAGE), 3) OR BAPLA (FORCE MARRIAGE), AND 4) ITUT BAPLA (TACTICAL MARRIAGE). MOREOVER, SANTALS DO HAVE EXCEPTIONS ESPECIALLY IN THE plate OF MARRIAGE BETWEEN CANDIDATES OF THE SAME CLAN. FOR EXAMPLE, WHEN THE MARRIAGE OF A YOUNG COUPLE OF THE SA ME CLAN FOR A VALID REASON BECOMES NECESSARY, AND CONSANGUINITY OR AFFINITY DOES NOT PREVENT IT, THEY APPLY A juridic PRETENSE.IN SUCH CASE, AN ELDERLY COUPLE OF A DIFFERENT CLAN, ADOPTS THE BRIDE AS THEIR DAUGHTER THROUGH A SIMPLE RITUAL eucharist AND GIVES THE PROPER NAME TO HER. 4. 5 one-year FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES THE SANTAL SOCIETY IS MARKED WITH FEASTS, FESTIVALS AND RITUAL CELEBRATIONS. ONE OF THE TERMS OFTEN used by the Santals is r sk? ? meaning happiness, or joy, WHICH IS NOT ONLY DEAR TO THEIR HEARTS BUT IS PART AND PARCEL OF THEIR LIFE. THUS, WE FIND DANCING AND SINGING HAVE A VERY Copernican ROLE AT EVERY FESTIVAL OCCASION. IT BRINGS A SANTAL TO FORGET WORRIES AND STRESSES OF HIS OR HER 9 P a g e.Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh DAY-TO-DAY LIFE. IN THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE SANTALS, FEASTS AND FESTIVALS HAVE GREAT SIGNIFICANCE FOR THESE ARE THE LIVING EXPRESSION OF THE DEEP ASPIRATION OF JOY AND HAPPINESS, AND ALSO DEMONSTRATE THE FEELING OF COMMUNITY AND SOLIDARITY INTEGR ATED AS PART OF THE NATURE OF THE SANTALS. MANY OF SUCH CHARACTERISTICS ARE EXPRESSED IN SONGS, MUSIC AND IN DANCE. IN FACT, THE SANTALS DONT GIVE ANY SPACE TO individualisation AND IT IS REALLY DURING THE FEASTS AND FESTIVALS THAT AN INDIVIDUAL REALIZES HIMSELF OR HERSELF IN THE COMMUNITY AND HIS OR HER FUTURE ROLE IN THE LIFE OF.THE COMMUNITY. ALTHOUGH, MOST OF THESE FESTIVALS SEEMINGLY APPEAR AS MERE GATHERING OF CLOSE FRIENDS AND RELATIVES, INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME SUB-CLAN OR THAT revive ONLY THE INHABITANTS OF A VILLAGE YET, THERE ARE ALSO OCCASIONS THAT INVOLVE MORE VILLAGES, AS IT USUALLY HAPPENS ON THE OCCASION OF MARRIAGE WHEN PARTICIPATION IS MOSTLY UNANIMOUS. IN ANY OF THESE FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, THERE ARE CERTAIN RITES AND RITUALS BEING FOLLOWED OFTEN ACCOMPANIED BY SIMPLE OFFERING AT THE CENTER. ABLUTIONS AND UNCTION OF OIL, THE USE OF VERMILION TO MARK THE SACRIFICIAL VICTIM AND EVEN BEING USED BY THE.PARTICIPANTS, BEARS A greater SIGNIFICANCE. IN FACT, SOME OF THESE FESTIVAL PERFORMANCES CONSIST OF SOME SORT OF WORSHIP OR FOLK CULTS. FROM THE RITES AND FESTIVALS OF THE SANTALS, IT IS QUITE CLEAR THAT THEIR ECONOMIC LIFE, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND RITUAL PERFORMANCES ARE INTERWOVEN MAINLY AROUND AGRICULTURE. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE ASPECTS OF MATERIAL LIFE MUST BE PROTECTED AND GUARDED BY APPROPRIATE RITES AND FESTIVALS AND BONGA (SPIRITS) MUST BE SATISFIED BY GIVING THEIR out-of-pocket SHARES. MANY OF THE SOCIO-CULTURAL FESTIVALS AND RITUALISTIC CELEBRATIONS INDICATE THAT SANTALS.HAVE DEEPER INSIGHTS THAT GO BEYOND MERE EXTERNAL CELEBRATIONS. HOWEVER, DUE TO THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THIS STUDY, WE ONLY MENTION SOME MAIN ANNUAL FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES COMMONLY OBSERVED LIKE SOHORAE (HARVEST FESTIVAL), BAHA (FLOWER festival), Erok (sowing of rice seeds in the field), Iri-Gundli N wai? (offering of THE FIRST FRUITS OF THE MILLET IRI), JANTHAR (OFFERING OF THE FIRST FRUITS OF THE WINTER RICE CROP). SANTALS ALSO HAVE OCCASIONAL RITES AND FE STIVALS, WHICH ARE NEITHER ASSOCIATED WITH AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS NOR PERFORMED ANNUALLY. SOME OF THESE ARE JOM SIM, MAK MORE AND KARAM.10 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL REALITIES 5. 1 OCCUPATIONS AND LIVING TRADITIONALLY SANTALS ARE MAINLY AGRICULTURISTS. THEY CLING TO THEIR LAND AS THEIR PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION AND MEANS OF SUBSISTENCE. ABOUT 95% OF THE SANTALS ARE INVOLVED IN AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. INDUSTRIOUS AND HARDWORKING AS THEY ARE, UNFORTUNATELY THE scientific SIDE OF THEIR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CULTIVATION AND MANAGING THEIR LAND HAS NOT BEEN DEVELOPED. IN THE PAST THE MAJORITY OF THE SANTALS WERE LANDOWNERS, BUT DUE TO THE INCREASE IN POPULATION, EXPLOITATION BY MONEYLENDERS AND LANDLORDS, ILLEGAL.OCCUPATION OF THEIR LAND, POVERTY AND ILLITERACY, NATURAL CALAMITIES ETC. THE colossal MAJORITY OF THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH HAVE LOST THEIR LAND PROPERTIES. AT PRESENT, NEARLY 80% OF THE SANTALS ARE LAND-LESS, FORCING THEM TO pretend THEIR LIVE LIHOOD DEPENDING ON THE MERCY AND AVAILABILITY OF WORK IN THE FIELDS OF THEIR MUSLIM OR Hindi NEIGHBORS FOR THEIR MERE SUBSISTENCE. YET, IT IS SIGNIFICANT TO NOTE THAT TRADITIONALLY THERE ARE NO BEGGARS AMONG THE SANTALS. RATHER, THE SANTALS IN THE TIME OF frightful POVERTY GO TO THE JUNGLE TO COLLECT WILD PLANTS, FRUITS, WILD POTATOES AND ROOTS OF YOUNG SHOOTS, FLOWERS, MUSHROOMS, ETC. hunt down AND FISHING THAT USED TO BE PART OF SANTAL-LIVING, HAVE NOW BECOME SECONDARY IMPORTANCE DUE TO THE CHANGE OF SITUATION. LACK OF EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN THE VILLAGE AREAS, ALSO FORCED MANY SANTALS TO FLOCK TO THE nearby TOWNS AND CITIES IN SEARCH OF DAILY WAGES AND JOBS. THE WOMEN IN SANTAL SOCIETY PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN MAINTAINING THEIR FAMILIES BUT IN REALITY THEY REMAIN DEPRIVED OF THEIR EQUAL RIGHT, WHICH IS REFLECTED BY THE FACT THAT WOMEN ARE NOT ELIGIBLE FOR THE INHERITANCE OF PROPERTIES. SANTALS HAVE NEVER BEEN FOUND TO BE INTERESTED IN COMMERCE OR ANY SUCH PROFESSION.TO AV AIL OF ECONOMIC SELF-RELIANCE. THIS IS ONE OF THE REASONS WHY THEY REMAIN RATHER MARGINALIZED INVITING POVERTY IN THEIR LIVES. MOREOVER, MOST SANTALS DO NOT THINK ABOUT FUTURE, RATHER THEY ARE MORE CONCERNED FOR THE DAY ITS A DAY-TO-DAY LIVING AND THEY REMAIN SATISFIED AND HAPPY WITH THE LITTLE THEY CAN HAVE FOR MAINTAINING THEIR FAMILY. HOWEVER, DUE TO SOME PROGRESS IN EDUCATION, A SMALL NUMBER OF SANTALS HAVE BEEN ABLE TO engage LITTLE CHANGES IN THEIR WAY OF LIVING. 11 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh SOME HAVE TAKEN UP MODERN PROFESSIONS LIKE TEACHINGS, TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE, JUDICIAL ADVOCACY, NURSING ETC.5. 2 POLITICAL REALITY SANTALS, A PEACE LOVING PEOPLE HAVE NEVER BEEN FOUND INTERESTED IN POLITICS. YET, THEY HAVE ALWAYS REACTED WHEN THINGS WENT SEVERELY PAINFUL AND THEY WERE PUSHED AGAINST THE WALL WHEN THEY COULD NOT BEAR ANYMORE. THE HISTORIC SANTAL REVOLUTION IN 1855-56, THE TEBHAGA ANDOLON (SHARE CROPPERS MOVEMENT) IN 1945, AND THE NACHOL BIDROHO (FARMERS REVOLUTION ) IN THE YEAR 1950, ARE THE CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF THE PAST. IN FACT, SANTALS HAVE ALWAYS BEEN USED BY OTHERS IN THE FOREFRONT BATTLE. ILLITERACY, ABSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL SET UP AND LACK OF GENUINE. leadership HAVE KEPT THE SANTALS FAR FROM ACHIEVING ANY END RESULT. IN RECENT YEARS, SOME OF THE SANTALS HAVE BEEN FOUND TO TAKE ACTIVE ROLE IN THE LOCAL POLITICS BY THEIR PARTICIPATION IN THE LOCAL ELECTION. 12 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 6. BELIEFS AND RITUAL PRACTICES 6. 1 THE BELIEF IN ONE SUPREME BEING AS IT HAS ALREADY BEEN MENTIONED EARLIER, SANTALS DO BELIEVE IN ONE SUPREME BEING WHOM THEY CALL THAKUR JIU (LIFE GIVER) OR MARANG BURU (GREAT MOUNTAIN) WHO IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE SUPREME AMONG ALL THE RELIGIOUS BEINGS. THE MOST COMMON SANTAL-TERM USED FOR THE SUPREME BEING.THESE DAYS IS CANDO BABA (SUN FATHER). ACCORDING TO THE EXPERIENCE OF THE RESEARCHER THE SANTALS HERE DO NOT REFER LITERALLY TO THE SUN ITSELF RATHER, IT IS AN EXPRESSION OF A DIVINE ACTIVITY EXPRESSION OF DIVINE LOVE IN RELATION TO HUMAN BEINGS. FOR THE SANTALS, CANDO BABA IS A BENEVOLENT DEITY WHO ORGANIZES THE DAYS AND NIGHTS AND IS RESPONSIBLE FOR HEAT AND COLD, RAIN AND SUNSHINE AND FROM A DWELLING SOMEWHERE IN THE SKY, ALLOTS EACH SANTAL A TERM OF LIFE HERE ON EARTH. BUT, HE STAYS FAR AWAY, FAR ABOVE THE SKY AND CANNOT BE REACHED. IT IS UNDERNEATH.THE SUN, on a lower floor THE CLOUDS, THAT SANTAL LIFE IS CHALLENGED. HERE THE BONGA ROAM AROUND AND ONLY BY COMING TO TERMS WITH THEM CAN SANTALS BE HAPPY. 6. 2 THE BELIEF IN BONGA (SPIRITS) THE SANTALS BELIEVE IN THE EXISTENCE OF THE SPIRITS WHO ARE CALLED BONGA. THE BONGA HAVE MUCH REPERCUSSION ON DAILY LIVING OF THE SANTALS. TO ENSURE THEIR CONTINUING CARE, BESIDE ANNUAL SACRIFICES, THE BONGA ARE REMEMBERED IN A DAILY BASIS. WHENEVER A MEAL IS TAKEN, A SMALL PORTION OF THE FOOD IS DROPPED ON THE FLOOR FOR THE BONGA, OR AT THE TIME WHENEVER RICE-BEER IS DRUNK, A LITTLE IS SPILT ON THE GROUND FOR MARANG BURU.THUS, THE SANTALS LIVE N OT ONLY IN THEIR TRIBAL SOCIETY BUT IN A GREATER SOCIETY CONSISTING OF SUPERNATURAL BEINGS AS WELL. IN PRACTICE, THE SANTALS OFTEN USE THE TERM BONGA MEANING TO INCORPORATE SOMEONE INTO THE SOCIETY BY DOING CERTAIN RITUAL. THE PHRASE USED IN THIS CASE IS BONGA TALA KEDEAKO MEANING, HE/SHE HAS BEEN ADMITTED INTO SANTAL SOCIETY. ACCORDING TO THE SANTAL RELIGIOUS BELIEF THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF BONGATHE MALEVOLENT AND THE BENEVOLENT ONES. THE BONGA-WORSHIP IS PRIMARILY TO PLEASE AND TO INVOKE THE POWERS OF THE BENEVOLENT BONGA AND TO AVERT THE ILL WILL OF THE MALEVOLENT BONGA.IN THE WORSHIP OF BONGA WE CAN DISTINGUISH ANALYTICALLY TWO INTERRELATED ASPECTS 13 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh A) THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT OF THE RELIGIOUS RITES IS TO HAVE AN shackle WITH THE BENEVOLENT BONGA AND THEREBY CONTROLLING OR EVEN DEFEATING THE POWERS OF THE MALEVOLENT BONGA AND B) THE EXPRESSIVE ASPECT OF THE WORSHIP IS MANIFESTED THROUGH VARIOUS SEASONAL AND RELIGIOUS RITES, FESTIVALS AND RITES AS SOCIATED WITH VARIOUS SOCIAL RITUALS. SANTALS HAVE AN INNATE RELATIONSHIP WITH THEIR BONGA AND CONSIDER THEMSELVES LIVING WITH THEM.THIS RELATIONSHIP IS MOSTLY OF DEPENDENCE, SUBMISSION, PROPITIATION AND REVERENTIAL FEAR. THE SANTALS DO SUPPLICATIONS OFFER RICE-BEER AND ANIMAL SACRIFICES IN THE NAME OF THE BONGA. IT IS worthy MENTIONING THAT THERE ARE INSTANCES AMONG THE SANTALS IN THE RURAL VILLAGES WHERE PERSONS EVEN IN TIME OF SERIOUS SICKNESS WOULD NOT LOOK FOR MEDICAL HELP INSTEAD LEAVE IT TO THE BONGA TO BE CURED. 6. 3 BELIEF IN witchcraft RELATED TO SANTAL BELIEF-SYSTEM, IS ALSO THE EXISTENCE OF WITCHES. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN PEOPLE, ESPECIALLY WOMEN, WHO POSSESS SPECIAL POWER AND TECHNIQUES TO HARM PEOPLE, CATTLE, AND CROPS.THESE SO-CALLED WITCHES ARE INVOLVED IN DOING HARMFUL ACTIVITIES LIKE GIVING POISONS, taking OUT HUMAN LIVERS, SENDING TROUBLESOME SPIRITS TO CERTAIN FAMILIES AND CHANGING THEMSELVES INTO BLACK CATS. BECAUSE OF SUCH BELIEF IN WITCHC RAFT PRACTICES, THE SANTALS EASILY SUSPECT ONE ANOTHER, AND ARE OFTEN LED TO FIGHT. IT IS PRESUMED THAT IT IS ESSENTIAL TO HAVE SUCH A BELIEF ESPECIALLY IN THE PAGAN WORLD. HOWEVER, THERE IS ALSO A COUNTER-BELIEF AMONG THE SANTALS THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN PEOPLE OJHA-JANGURU (SPECIALISTS), MAINLY MEN, WHO POSSESS SPECIAL POWER AND TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTING WITCHES AND NULLIFYING THEIR SPELLS.THUS, WHENEVER SANTALS GET INTO TROUBLE, THEY strain THE HELP OF THESE PEOPLE WHO, MORE OFTEN EXPLOIT THE SOCIETY. REFERRING TO THE SICKNESS AND OTHER PROBLEMS, THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THEY ARE CAUSED BY THE EVIL SPIRITS WHEN THEY BECOME DISSATISFIED WITH THE SACRIFICES OF THE PEOPLE OR WHEN THEY THINK THAT THEY ARE BEING MANIPULATED BY SOME EVIL-MINDED PEOPLE (WITCHES). THEREFORE, THE SANTALS TRY TO IDENTIFY THE AGENTS OF THE TROUBLE THROUGH THE HELP OF OJHAJANGURU AND TRY TO settle EACH AGENT THROUGH VARIOUS SACRIFICES. 14 P a g e.Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 6. 4 THE ANCESTORS FROM THE RITES A ND RITUALS AS PRACTICED BY THE SANTALS, IT IS QUITE EVIDENT THAT ANCESTOR-WORSHIP IS A COMMON FEATURE AMONG THEM. THE DEAD ANCESTORS ARE THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE FAMILIES OR GROUPS TO WHICH THEY BELONGED AND THAT THEY ARE EASILY APPROACHABLE BY THEIR LIVING KINSMEN. HENCE, AT ALL IMPORTANT OCCASIONS OF BIRTH, OF MARRIAGE OR OF DEATH THE DECEASED ANCESTORS ARE REMEMBERED AND OFFERED SACRIFICES. 6. 5 THE JAHERTHAN OR THE SACRED GROVE IS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF A SANTAL VILLAGE. IT IS A SACRED PLACE OF SPECIAL WORSHIP FOR THE SANTALS.AFTER A VILLAGE HAS BEEN SET UP, A JAHERTHAN IS INSTALLED THROUGH RITUAL CEREMONY AT THE OUTSKIRT OF THE VILLAGE. THE MAIN DEITY OF THE JAHERTHAN, IS KNOWN AS JAHER ERA (THE LADY OF THE GROVE). ACCORDING TO THE SANTALS, SHE RESIDES THERE BESIDES OTHER IMPORTANT DEITIES SUCH AS THE MOREKO-TURUIKO (LITERALLY MEANS FIVE-SIX). THE JAHER ERA PRESIDES OVER THE SACRED GROVE, TENDS OVER OTHER BONGA IN THE JAHERTHAN AND LOOKS AFTER THE INTERESTS OF THE VILLAGERS ES PECIALLY FOR THEIR PHYSICAL NEEDS. THE SPIRITS OF THE JAHERTHAN ARE WORSHIPPED DURING THE PRINCIPAL FESTIVALS, LIKE SOHORAE (HARVEST FESTIVAL), BAHA.(FLOWER FESTIVAL), EROK (SOWING FESTIVAL), AND SO ON FOR THE GENERAL WELFARE OF THE VILLAGE PARTICULARLY FOR OBTAINING GOOD CROPS AND FOR THE HEALTH OF THE VILLAGERS AND THEIR LIVESTOCK. 6. 6 The M njhithan? or the altar of the top dog is placed along side the kulhi (VILLAGE ROAD) OR OFTEN AT THE CENTRAL PLACE OF THE VILLAGE OR IN FRONT THE HOUSE OF THE M njhi? (the headman). It is believed that the Manjhi bonga (spirit of the headman) RESIDES IN THIS ALTAR AND ACTS AS THE SPIRITUAL ADVISER OF THE HEADMAN. HERE THE M njhi? offers sacrifice for the benefit of himself, his family and for the whole.VILLAGE. 6. 7 THE HOUSE-ALTAR IN THE INNER SIDE OF A SANTAL HOUSE, THERE REMAINS THE bhit r, ? a tiny compartment, which is the darkest space of the house. It is the abode OF THE ORAK BONGA (HOUSE SPIRITS) OR OFTEN KNOWN AS ABGE BONGATHE BONGA OF THE SUB-CLAN. THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY DOES THE WORSHIP. IN ANY OCCASION OF THE FAMILY AND SOCIAL FESTIVALS, FOOD OFFERING IS MADE ON THIS ALTAR. THE NAMES OF THE ORAK BONGA ARE NOT REVEALED TO OUTSIDERS AND EVEN TO THE FEMALE MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE RATHER, HANDED DOWN FROM FATHER TO SON. USUALLY THE ELDEST SON RECEIVES THE NAME FROM HIS FATHER. 15 P a g e.Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh The bhit r? is also used as a secret place to germinate and to store h ndi ? (rice beer), WHICH IS NOT ONLY USED AS NORMAL DRINK BUT ITS USE IS SIGNIFICANT AND EXTENDED TO SOCIO-CULTURAL RITUALISTIC CELEBRATIONS, AND EVEN THAT TO BE OFFERED TO get together THE BONGA. 6. 8 THE AFTER-LIFE IS THE CONTINUATION OF LIFE THAT IS LIVED IN THIS WORLD. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE SPIRIT OF THE DECEASED GOES TO A SHADOWY WORLD WHERE THE PERSON REQUIRES THE MATERIALS OF THIS WORLD. THIS IS WELL EXPRESSED WITH THE RITUAL PRACTICES DONE AT THE TIME OF BURIAL AND DURING THE BHANDAN, THE LAST CEREMONY DONE IN HONOR OF THE DEAD.IN THE PAST, IT WAS PERFORMED IMMEDIATELY AFTER ALL THE REQUIREMENTS HAD BEEN FULFILLED FOR THE DECEASED PERSON, BUT IN PRESENT DAYS SUCH CEREMONY, IN A RICH FAMILY, IS DONE WITHIN TWO OR THREE MONTHS FROM THE DEATH AND IN A POOR FAMILY, IT IS ONE YEAR OR TWO. FOR THE SANTALS, THE MORE NUMEROUS ARE THE ANIMAL-VICTIMS OFFERED IN HONOR OF THE DEAD DURING THE BHANDAN, THE MORE WOULD BE THE ANIMALS THAT THE ANCESTOR WILL HAVE IN THE OTHER WORLD. MOST ANIMAL-VICTIMS ARE DONATED BY THE RELATIVES AND NONE OF THEM ARE TO BE SPARED FOR FUTURE USE BY THE FAMILY CONCERNED.TRADITIONALLY EVERY SANTAL, MALE AND FEMALE, IS SUPPOSED TO BEAR UNDELETABLE SCARS on the body. For the male, it is the sik? that must be at least three scars REPRESENTING JION (LIFE), MORON (DEATH), AND JION (LIFE). THE SANTAL WOMEN DO NOT practice session sik? , but to escape to be devoured by the worms in the life-after, they have THEIR CHEST stainED, WHICH IS CALLED BY THE SANTALS KHODA. FR. PUSSETTO, WITH HIS VAST EXPERIENCE WITH THE SANTALS TESTIFIED I HAVE NOT ONLY SEEN SANTAL WOMEN TATTOOED ON THE CHEST BUT ALSO ON THE BACK, ON THE FACE, ON THE ARMS AND ON THE LEGSTHE TATTOO WERE ENOUGH COMPLICATED, BUT PURELY ORNAMENTALTHE TATTOO WILL SERVE TO THE WOMEN TO BE RECOGNIZED FROM THE respective(prenominal) HUSBANDS IN THE OTHER LIFE.IN THE PRESENT TIMES THE YOUNGER GENERATION OF THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH DOES NOT practice sik ? or khoda or rather these have become voluntary. However, every SANTAL CHILD BEARS NEEDLE-EYE WHOLES IN HIS/HER TWO EARS TO USE ORNAMENTS WHEN THEY GROW UP AND ESPECIALLY AT THE TIME OF HIS/HER MARRIAGE. 16 P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 7. MORALITY IN SANTAL CONCEPTION FOR THE SANTALS, MORALITY MEANS RIGHTFUL DOING AND LIVING AND be TRUE AND LOYAL.